Introduction to Embedded Systems

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Definition and Classification – Overview of Processors and hardware units in an embedded system – Software embedded into the system – Exemplary Embedded  Systems – Embedded Systems on a Chip (SoC) and the use of VLSI designed circuits.

Definition and Classification

An embedded system is a system that has software embedded into computer-hardware, which makes a system dedicated for an application (s)or specific part of an application or product or part of a larger system.

An embedded system is one that has dedicated purpose software embedded in computer hardware.

It is a dedicated computer based system for an application(s) or product. It maybe an independent system or apart of large system. Its software usually embeds into a ROM (Read Only Memory) or flash.

―It is any device that includes a programmable computer but is not itself intended to be a general purpose computer.‖ –Wayne Wolf, Ref: 61

―Systems are the electronic systems that contain a microprocessor or a microcontroller, but we do not think of them as computers– the computer is hidden or embedded inthe system.‖ – Todd

D. Morton,Ref: 38

Main Embedded System Components

1.     Embeds hardware to give computer like functionalities

2.     Embeds main application software generally into flash or ROM and the application software performs concurrently the number of tasks.

3.     Embeds a real time operating system (RTOS), which supervises the application software tasks running on the hardware and organizes the accesses to system resources according to priorities and timing constraints of tasks in the system.

PROCESSOR IN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Fig: Typical Embedded System Hardware Unit.

Program Flow and data path Control Unit (CU) —includes a fetch unit for fetching instructions from the memory

Execution Unit (EU) —includes circuits for arithmetic and logical unit

(ALU), and for instructions for a program control task, say, data transfer instructions, halt, interrupt, or jump to another set of instructions or call to another routine or sleep or reset

1a. General purpose microprocessor

For example, Intel 80x86, Sparc, or Motorola 68HCxxx

1b. Embedded general purpose processor

Fast context switching features, use of on-chip Compilers, for example, Intel® XScale™

Applications Personal Internet Client Architecture-based PDAs, cell phones and other wireless devices,

2.Application Specific Instruction-Set Processor (ASIP)

(a)Microcontroller — Intel, Motorola, Hitachi, TI, Philips and ARM, for example, an Intel® MCS51, Philips®51XA, 51MX, or Motorola — 68HC11, 68HC12, 68HC16

(b) DSP or Typically a Texas Instruments- C28xSeries, C54xx or C64xx or Analog Devices SHARC or Tiger SHARC, Motorola 5600xx

(c) Media processor TI DSP TMS320DM310 or TrimediaPhillips Media Processor 1x00series for Processing Streaming and Data Networks and Image, Video and Speech: PNX 1300, PNX 1500(2002)

(d) IO processor or

(e) Network processor or

(f) A domain specific processor

3. GPP or ASIP core (s)

GPP or ASIP integrated into either an Application Specific Integrated Circuit

(ASIC), or a Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI) circuit or a FPGA core integrated with processor unit(s) in a VLSI (ASIC) chip

4. Application Specific System Processor (ASSP)

Typically a set top box processor or mpeg video-processor or network application processor or mobile application processor

5. Single purpose processor or Application Specific Instruction processor

• Floating point Coprocessor

• CCD Pixel coprocessor and image codec in digital camera

• Graphic processor

• Speech processor

• Adaptive filtering processor Encryption engine

• Decryption engine

• Communication protocol stack processor

•   Java accelerator Examples Java Accelerator Nazonin Communications Java codes run 15 to60 Times fast, Video Accelerator for fast Video Processing

6. Multi core processors or multiprocessor system using GPPs

Examples

• Multiprocessor system for Real time performance in a video-conference system,

• Embedded firewall cum router, High-end cell phone.

Hardware Elements in the Embedded Systems

(i) Power Source

1. System own supply with separate supply rails for IOs, clock, basic processor and memory and analog units

2. Supply from a system to which the embedded system interfaces, for example in a network card,

3.   Charge pump concept used in a system of little power needs, for examples, in the mouse or contact-less smart card.

Power Dissipation Management

1. Clever real-time programming by Wait and Stop instructions

2. Clever reduction of the clock rate during specific set of instructions

3. Optimizing the codes and

4. Clever enabling and disabling of use of caches or cache blocks

(ii) Clock Oscillator Circuit and Clocking Units

1. Appropriate clock oscillator circuit

2. Real Time Clock( System Clock)and Timers driving hardware and software

(iii) Reset Circuit

1. Reset on Power-up

2. External and Internal Reset circuit

3. Reset on Timeout of Watchdog timer

(iv)Memory

a. Functions Assigned to the ROM or EPROM or Flash

1. Storing 'Application' program from where the processor fetches the instruction codes

2. Storing codes for system booting, initializing, Initial input data and Strings.

3. Storing Codes for RTOS.

4. Storing Pointers (addresses) of various service routines.

b. Functions Assigned to the Internal, External and Buffer RAM

1. Storing the variables during program run,

2. Storing the stacks,

3. Storing input or output buffers for example, for speech or image .

c. Functions Assigned to the EEPROM or Flash

Storing non-volatile results of processing

d. Functions Assigned to the Caches

1. Storing copies of the instructions, data and branch-transfer instructions in advance from external memories

2. Storing temporarily the results in write back caches during fast processing

(v) Interrupts Handler

Interrupt Handling element for the external port interrupts, IO interrupts, timer and RTC interrupts, software interrupts and Exceptions

(vi)Linking Embedded System Hardware

• Linking and interfacing circuit for the Buses by using the appropriate multiplexers, and decoders, demultiplexers  Interface the various system units

3. IO Communication Unit

a. Communication Driver(s):Network Ethernet or serial driverto communicate with host embedded system Expansion Facility …

Serial Bus(es): For example, UART(512 kbaud/s), 1-wire CAN (33 kbps),

Industrial I2C (100kbps), SM I2C Bus(100 kbps), SPI (100 kbps), Faulttolerant CAN (110 kbps), Serial Port(230 kbps), MicroWire (300 kbps), SCSI parallel (40 Mbps), Fast SCSI

(8M to 80 Mbps) , Ultra SCSI-3 (8Mto 160 Mbps), FireWire/IEEE 1394(400 Mbps, 72 meter), High SpeedUSB 2.0 (480 Mbps, 25 meter)

Parallel Bus(es): PCI, PCI-X

b. Media IO Control Element

c. Keypad or Keyboard IO Interface

d. LCD Display System Interface

e. ADC – Single or Multi channel

f. DAC

g. GPIB Interface Element

h. Pulse Dialling Element

i. Modem

j. Bluetooth, 802.11, IrDA,

Software for Embedding in a System

ROM image, Programming Languages and Program models

1. ROM Image

• Final stage software also called ROM image

(Just as an image is a unique sequence and arrangement of pixels, embedded software is also a unique placement and arrangement at each ROM address of bytes for instructions and data.)

Final machine software

^Ø   Bytes at each address defined for creating the ROM image.

^Ø   By changing this image, the same hardware platform work differently and can be used for entirely different applications or for new upgrades of the same system.

^Ø   Distinct ROM image in a distinctEmbedded System

_ Hardware elements between the distinct systems can be identical but itis the software that makes

a system unique and distinct from the other.

^Ø   Compressed Codes and Data ROM image may alternatively becompressed software (for example, the zip format) and data (for example, the pictures in jpg or gif format) along with the software required for decompression algorithm

Programming Languages

1. Machine Language Coding Programmer defines the addresses and the corresponding bytes or bits at each address.

2. Used in configuring some specific physical device or subsystem like transceiver, the machine code- based coding is used

3. Assembly Language Coding Needed for Invoking Processor

Specific Instructions Requires understanding of the processor and instruction set.

A program or a small specific partcoded in the assembly language using an Assembler (software used for developing codes in assembly).

Three steps when using assembly language

'                    Assembler', 'Linker' and

'Locator' before finally burned at the ROM

3. Programming language C or C++ or Visual

C++ or Java

Application Software - Different Program Layers

Program various layers–

·          processor commands,

·          main function,

·          task functions and

·          library functions,

·            interrupt service routines

·            and kernel (scheduler), Compiler

·            Generates an object file. Using linker and locator, the file for ROM image is created for the targeted hardware. C++ and Java are other languages used for software coding.

Program Models

·        Sequential Programming Model

·        Object Oriented Programming Model

·        Control and Data flow graphs or

Synchronous Data Flow (SDF) Graph or Multi Thread Graph (MTG) Model

·        Finite State Machine for data path

·        Multithreaded Model

·        Concurrent Processing of processes or thread or tasks

Software for embedding in System- Part 2

Device drivers, Device manager, OS, RTOS and Software tools

Devices

·                In an embedded system, there are number of physical devices.

·                Physical devices – keypad, LCD display or touch screen, memory stick(flash memory), wireless networking device, parallel port and network card In an embedded system, there are number of virtual devices.

o  Virtual devices – pipe, file, RAM disk, socket,

A device driver is software for controlling (configuring), receiving and sending a byte or a stream of bytes from or to a device.

A set of generic functions, such as create ( ),open ( ), connect ( ), listen ( ), accept ( ), read ( ), write ( ), close ( ), delete ( ) for use by high level programmers Each generic function calls a specific software (interrupt service routine), which controls a device function or device input or output

Device controls and functions by :

1. Calling an ISR (also called Interrupt Handler Routine) on hardware or software interrupt

2. Placing appropriate bits at the control register or word.

3. Setting status flag(s) in the status register for interrupting, therefore running (driving) the ISR, Resetting the status flag after interrupt service.

Device Manager for the devices and drivers

Device Management software (usually a part of the OS) provide codes for detecting the presence of devices, for initializing (configuring) these and for testing the devices that are present.

Also includes software for allocating and registering port(s) or device codes and data at memory addresses for the various devices at distinctly different addresses, including codes for detecting any collision between the allocated addresses, if any

Multitasking using an operating

·        system (OS) and Real time operating system (RTOS), Concurrent Processes, tasks or threads

·        A System is composed of twoor more concurrent processes that execute Operating System

·        Multitasking (multiprocessing or multithreaded) software Scheduling multiple tasks,

·        Processes, memory, device, ports, network, file system, timers, event functions, inter processor communication, shared memory, security, GUIs, ... management

Real Time Operating System (RTOS)

Embedded software is most often designed for deterministic performance and task and ISR latencies in addition to the OS functions

Performing multiple actions and controlling multiple devices and their ISRs with defined real time constraints and with deadlines for these Task and ISRs priority allocations, their preemptive scheduling, OS for providing deterministic performance during concurrent processing and execution with hard(stringent) or soft timing requirements with priority allocation and pre-emption. RTOS is needed when the tasks for the system have real time constraints and deadlines for finishing the tasks

Important RTOSes

·        OS μCOS-II

·        VxWorks

·        Windows CE

·        OSEK

·        Linux 2.6.24 or RTLinux

·        QNX

So Development Toolsftware tools

1. Editor,

2. Interpreter,

3. Compiler,

4. Assembler and Cross Assembler, IDE,

5. Prototyper

Application Software Development Tools

·        Source Code Engineering Tools

·        Stethoscope (tracks the switching from one task to another as a function of time, stores beats)

·        Trace Scope (traces changes in aparameter(s) as a function of time)

Simulator

A Simulator used to simulate the target processor and hardware elements on a host PC and to run and test the executable module.

Project Manager

To manage the files that associates with a design stage project and keep several versions of the source file(s) in an orderly fashion.

EXAMPLES OFEMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Examples

o  Telecom

o  Smart Cards,

o  Missiles and Satellites,

o   Computer Networking,

o  Digital Consumer Electronics, and

o  Automotive

Applications

o Mobile phone o Digital camera o Robots

o  Point of sales terminals

o  Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine

o Stepper motor controllers for a robotics system o Washing or cooking system

o  Multitasking Toys

o  Microcontroller- based single or multi-displaydigital panel meter for voltage, current, resistance and frequency

o Keyboard controller o Serial port cards

o  CD drive or Hard Disk drive controller

o  Peripheral controllers,, a CRT display controller, a keyboard controller, a DRAM controller, a DMA controller, a printer controller,

o  a laser printer-controller, a LAN controller, a disk drive controller

o Fax or photocopy or printer or scanner Machine Remote (controller) of TV o Telephone with memory, display and other sophisticated features

Motor controls Systems - for examples, an accurate control of speed and position of d.c. motor, robot, and CNC machine;, the automotive applications like such as a close loop engine control, a dynamic ride control, and an anti-lock braking system monitor

o   Electronic data acquisition and supervisory control system Spectrum analyzer

o  Biomedical systems - for example, an ECG LCD display-cum-recorder, a blood- cell recorder cum analyzer and a patient monitor system service.

Electronic instruments, such as industrial process controller

Electronic smart weight display system, and an industrial moisture recorder cum controller. Digital storage system for a signal wave form or Electric or Water Meter Reading

Computer networking systems, - for examples, router, front-end processor in a server, switch, bridge, hub, and gateway

For Internet appliances, there are numerous application systems

(i)              Intelligent operation, administration and maintenance outer (IOAMR) in a distributed network, and

(ii)             Mail Client card to store e-mail and personal addresses and to smartly connect to a modem or server

Banking systems - for examples, Bank ATM and Credit card transactions

Signal Tracking Systems - for examples, an automatic signal tracker and a target tracker.

Communication systems, for examples, such as for a mobile-communication a SIM card, a numeric pager, a cellular phone, a cable TV terminal, and a FAX transceiver with or with out a graphic accelerator. Image Filtering, Image Processing, Pattern Recognizer, Speech Processing and Video Processing.

Entertainment systems - such as videogame, music system and Video Games

A system that connects a pocket PC to the automobile driver mobile phone and a wireless receiver. The system then connects to a remote server for Internet or e-mail or to remote computer at an ASP (application Service Provider).A personal information manager using frame buffers in hand- held devices.

Thin Client to provide the disk-less nodes with the remote boot capability.[Application of thin- clients is accesses to a data center from a number of nodes; or in an Internet Laboratory accesses to the Internet leased line through a remote Server]. Embedded Firewall / Router using ARM7/multi-processor with two Ethernet interfaces and interfaces support to for PPP, TCP/IP and UDP protocols.

Sophisticated Applications

·        Mobile Smart Phones and Computing systems

·        Mobile computer

·        Embedded systems for wireless LAN and convergent technology devices

·        Embedded systems for Video, Interactive video, broadband IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) Internet and other products, real time video and speech or multimedia processing systems

·        Embedded Interface and Networking systems using high speed (400 MHz plus), and ultra high speed (10 Gbps) and large bandwidth: Routers, LANs, switches and gateways, SANs (Storage Area Networks), WANs (Wide Area Networks),Security products and High-speed Network security, Gigabit rate encryption rate products

SYSTEM-ON-CHIP (SoC) AND USE OF VLSI CIRCUIT DESIGN TECHNOLOGY

VLSI chip

·        Integration of high-level components

·        Possess gate-level sophistication in circuits above that of the counter, register, multiplier, floating point operation unit and ALU.

System on chip (SoC) a new design innovation

SoC is a system on a VLSI chip that has all needed analog as well as digital circuits, processors and software, for example, single-chip mobile phone.

SYSTEM-ON-CHIP

Embeds:

• Multiple processors,

• memories,

• multiple standard source solutions (IP Cores),

• Logic and analog units

Embedding a Microprocessor

General Purpose Processor (GPP)microprocessor can be embedded on a VSLI chip.

Embedding an ASIP

Processor with instruction set designed for specific application on a VLSI chip for example, microcontroller, DSP, IO, media, network or other domain specific processor Embedding a Microcontroller core

·        68HC11xx,

·        HC12xx,

·        HC16xx8051,

·        80251 PIC 16F84 or

·        16C76, 16F876 and PIC18Microcontroller

·        Enhancements of ARM9/ARM7 ARM

·        Cortex M3 from Philips, Samsung and ST Microelectronics

Embedding a DSP Core

·        TMS320Cxx, OMAP1Tiger SHARC 5600xx PNX 1300, 15002

·        DSP for mobile phones, for example, OMAP of Texas Instruments use the effective power dissipation methods of dynamic switching both of power supply voltage and operating frequency of the CPU core.

·        Filtering, noise cancellation, echo elimination, compression and encryption

Embedding a Multi-processor or Dual Core using General Purpose Processors (GPP)

·        Speech signal-compression and coding

·        Signal decoding and decompression

Embedding an Accelerator

Accelerate the execution of codes, for example, a floating point coprocessor accelerates the mathematical operations and Java accelerator accelerates the Java code execution.

Embedding Single purpose processors

·        For Dialling, Modulating, Transmitting. Demodulating and Receiving.

·        Keypad interface and display interface handling.

·        Touch screen

·        Message display and creation, SMS (Short Message Service) and MMS

·        Protocol- stack generation.

·        Pixel coprocessor and CODEC in a digital Camera

SoC

·        Embedded processor GPP or ASIP core,

·        Single purpose processing cores or multiple processor cores,

·        A network bus protocol core,

·        An encryption and decryption functions cores,

·        Cores for FFT and Discrete cosine transforms for signal processing applications,

·        Memories

Multiple standard source solutions, called IP (Intellectual Property)cores,

·        Programmable logic device and FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) cores

·        Other logic and analog units.

IPs in SoC

·        IP –a standard source solution for synthesizing a higher-level component by configuring a core of VLSI circuit or FPGA core available as an Intellectual Property, called (IP).

·        High Level Components with gate level sophistication circuit much above level of counters and registers.

IPs

·        Designer or designing company holds the copyright for the synthesized design of a higher-level component for gate-level implementation of an IP.

·        One  might  have  to  pay  royalty  for every  chip  shipped.  An  embedded system  may

incorporate several IPs.

An IP may provide a design for adaptive filtering of a signal.

·        full design for implementing Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) or File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transmit a web page or file on Internet.

·        USB port controller, Bluetooth, GPS interface, Wireless 802.11or 802.16interfaces

·        An FPGA consists of a large number of programmable gates on a VLSI chip. There is a set of gates in each FPGA cell, called 'macro cell'.

·        Embedded system designed with a view of offering enhancing functionalities in future, then FPGA core can be used in the circuits. Each cell has several inputs and outputs. All cells interconnect like an array (matrix).Each interconnection is programmable through the associated memory RAM in a FPGA programming tool.

·        A concept is using FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) core along with single or multiple processors.

Use of Xilinx Spartan-3 90 nm based FPGAs with Power PCs(2003 ) Use of FPGAs cum Processor Cores

· FPGA 125136 Logic Cells along with the Four IBM PowerPC processors[Exemplary Application: System with a Data Encryption Engine at 1.5 Gbps]

FPGA

·        An SIMD instruction, Fourier transform and its inverse, DFT or Laplace transform andits inverse, compression or decompression, encrypting or deciphering, a specific pattern-recognition (for recognizing a signature or finger print or DNA sequence).

·        Configure an algorithm into the logic gates of the FPGA.