Isomerism in organic compounds and its types

Isomerism in organic compounds:

The term ‘isomerism’ was given by Berzelius, and its represents of existence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different structure and properties (physical, chemical, or both). Compounds exhibiting this isomerism are called isomers. The difference in properties of two isomers is due to difference in (bond connectivity or spatial arrangement) the arrangement of atoms within their molecules. Isomerism is broadly divided into two types. i. Constitutional isomerism, ii. stereoisomerism.

Constitutional isomers (Formerly structural isomers):

This type of isomers have same molecular formula but differ in their bonding sequence. Structural or constitutional isomerism is further classified into following types.

(a) Chain or nuclear or skeletal isomerism:

These isomers differ in the way in which the carbon atoms are bonded to each other in a carbon chain or in other words isomers have similar molecular formula but differ in the nature of the carbon skeleton (ie. Straight or branched)

(b) Position isomerism:

If different compounds belonging to same homologous series with the same molecular formula and carbon skeleton, but differ in the position of substituent or functional group or an unsaturated linkage are said to exhibit position isomerism.

Example:

(c) Functional isomerism:

Different compounds having same molecular formula but different functional groups are said to exhibit functional isomerism.

Example:

(d) Metamerism:

This type of isomerism is a special kind of structural isomerism arises due to the unequal distribution of carbon atoms on either side of the functional group or different alkyl groups attached to the either side of the same functional group and having same molecular formula. This isomerism is shown by compounds having functional group such as ethers, ketones, esters and secondary amines between two alkyl groups.

(e) Tautomerism:

It is a special type of functional isomerism in which a single compound exists in two readily inter con-vertible structures that differ markedly in the relative position of atleast one atomic nucleus, generally hydrogen. The two dif-ferent structures are known as tautomers. There are several types of tautomerism and the two important types are dyad and triad systems.

(i) Dyad system:

In this system hydrogen atom oscillates between two directly linked polyvalent atoms. Eg:

In this example hydrogen atom oscillates between carbon & nitrogen atom

(ii) Triad system: In this system hydrogen atom oscillates between three polyvalent atoms. It involves 1,3 migration of hydrogen atom from one polyvalent atom to other within the mole-cule. The most important type of triad system is keto–enol tautomerism and the two groups of tautomers are ketoform and enol-form. The polyvalent atoms involved are one oxygen and two carbon atoms. Enolisation is a process in which keto-form is converted to enol form. Both tautomeric forms are not equally stable. The less stable form is known as labile form

Example:

Nitro-aci tautomerism.

(f) Ring chain isomerism:

In this type of isomerism, compounds having same molecular formula but differ in terms of bonding of carbon atom to form open chain and cyclic structures for eg:

Stereoisomerism:

The isomers which have same bond connectivity but different arrangement of groups or atoms in space are known as stereoisomers. This branch of chemistry dealing with the study of three-dimensional nature (spactial arrangement) of molecules is known as stereo chemistry. The metabolic activities in living organisms, natural synthesis and drug synthesis involve various stereoisomers.

Steroisomerism:

Geometrical isomerism:

Geometrical isomers are the stereoisomers which have different arrangement of groups or atoms around a rigid frame work of double bonds. This type of isomerism occurs due to restricted rotation of double bonds, or about single bonds in cyclic compounds.

In alkenes, the carbon-carbon double bond is sp² hybridized. The carbon-carbon double bond consists of a σ bond and a π bond. The σ bond is formed by the head on overlap of sp² hybrid orbitals. The π bond is formed by the side wise overlap of ‘p’ orbitals. The presence of the π bond lock the molecule in one position. Hence, rotation around C=C bond is not possible. This restriction of rotation about C-C double bond is responsible for geometrical isomerism in alkenes.

These two compounds are termed as geometrical isomers and are distinguished from each other by the terms cis and trans. The cis isomer is one in which two similar groups are on the same side of the double bond. The trans isomers is that in which the two similar groups are on the opposite side of the double bond, hence this type of isomerism is often called cis-trans isomerism.

The cis-isomer can be converted to trans isomer or vice versa is only if either isomer is heated to a high temperature or absorbs light. The heat supplies the energy (about 62kcal/ mole) to break the π bond so that rotation about σ bond becomes possible. Upon cooling, the reformation of the π bond can take place in two ways giving a mixture both cis and trans forms of trans-2-butene and cis-2-butane.

Generally the trans isomer is more stable than the corresponding cis isomers. This is because in the cis isomer, the bulky groups are on the same side of the double bond. The steric repulsion of the groups makes the cis isomers less stable than the trans isomers in which bulky groups are on the opposite side. These cis and trans isomers have different chemical property is. They can be separated by fractional distillation, gas chromatography etc., All alkenes with identical substrate do not show geometrical isomerism. Geometrical isomerism is possible only when each double bonded C atom is attached to two different atoms or groups eg. In propene no geometrical isomers are possible because one of the double bonded carbon has two identical H atoms.

Cis-trans isomerism is also seen around single bond. For eg: 1,3-butadiene has two double bonds in conjugation. CH₂=CH-CH=CH_2. It can exist in infinite number of conformations, but the following two extreme conformations are important.

ii) Oximes and azo compounds:

Restricted rotation around C=N (oximes) gives rise to geometrical isomerism in oximes. Here ‘syn’ and ‘anti’ are used instead of cis and trans respectively. In the syn isomer the H atom of a doubly bonded carbon and –OH group of doubly bonded nitrogen lie on the same side of the double bond, while in the anti isomer, they lie on the opposite side of the double bond. For eg:

Optical Isomerism

Compounds having same physical and chemical property but differ only in the rotation of plane of the polarized light are known as optical isomers and the phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.

Some organic compounds such as glucose have the ability to rotate the plane of the plane polarized light and they are said to be optically active compounds and this property of a compound is called optical activity. The optical isomer, which rotates the plane of the plane polarised light to the right or in clockwise direction is said to be dextrorotary (dexter means right) denoted by the sign (+), whereas the compound which rotates to the left or anticlockwise is said to be leavo rotatory (leavues means left) denoted by sign(-). Dextrorotatory compounds are represented as ‘d’ or by sign (+) and lavorotatory compounds are represented as ‘l’ or by sign (-).

Enantiomerism and optical activity

An optically active substance may exist in two or more isomeric forms which have same physical and chemical properties but differ in terms of direction of rotation of plane polarized light, such optical isomers which rotate the plane of polarized light with equal angle but in opposite direction are known as enantiomers and the phenom-enon is known as enantiomerism. Isomers which are non-super impossible mirror im-ages of each other are called enantiomers.

Conditions for enantiomerism or optical isomerism

A carbon atom whose tetra valency is satisfied by four different substituents (atoms or groups) is called asymmetric carbon or chiral carbon. It is indicated by an asterisk as C*. A molecule possessing chiral carbon atom and non-super impossible to its own mirror image is said to be a chiral molecule or asymmetric, and the property is called chirality or dissymmetry.