Central Bank

Central Bank

A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a state’s currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries.

1. Functions of Central Bank (Reserve Bank of India)

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is India’s central banking institution, which controls the monetary policy of the Indian rupee. It commenced its operations on 1 April 1935 in accordance with the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. The original share capital was divided into shares of ₹100 each fully paid, which were initially owned entirely by private shareholders. Following India’s independence on 15 August 1947, the RBI was nationalised on 1 January 1949.

1. Monetary Authority: It controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rate, maintain healthy balance of payment, attain financial stability, control inflation, strengthen banking system.

2. The issuer of currency: The objective is to maintain the currency and credit system of the country. It is the sole authority to issue currency. It also takes action to control the circulation of fake currency.

3. The issuer of Banking License: As per Sec 22 of Banking Regulation Act, every bank has to obtain a banking license from RBI to conduct banking business in India.

4. Banker to the Government: It acts as banker both to the central and the state governments. It provides short-term credit. It manages all new issues of government loans, servicing the government debt outstanding and nurturing the market for government securities. It advises the government on banking and financial subjects.

5. Banker’s Bank: RBI is the bank of all banks in India as it provides loan to banks, accept the deposit of banks, and rediscount the bills of banks.

6. Lender of last resort: The banks can borrow from the RBI by keeping eligible securities as collateral at the time of need or crisis, when there is no other source.

7. Act as clearing house: For settlement of banking transactions, RBI manages 14 clearing houses. It facilitates the exchange of instruments and processing of payment instructions.

8. Custodian of foreign exchange reserves: It acts as a custodian of FOREX. It administers and enforces the provision of Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999. RBI buys and sells foreign currency to maintain the exchange rate of Indian rupee v/s foreign currencies.

9. Regulator of Economy: It controls the money supply in the system, monitors different key indicators like GDP, Inflation, etc.

10. Managing Government securities: RBI administers investments in institutions when they invest specified minimum proportions of their total assets/liabilities in government securities.

11. Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: The Payment and Settlement Systems Act of 2007 (PSS Act) gives RBI oversight authority for the payment and settlement systems in the country. RBI focuses on the development and functioning of safe, secure and efficient payment and settlement mechanisms.

12. Developmental  Role:   This   role includes the development of the quality banking system in India and ensuring that credit is available to the productive sectors of the economy. It provides a wide range of promotional functions to support national objectives. It also includes establishing institutions designed to build the country’s financial infrastructure. It also helps in expanding access to affordable financial services and promoting financial education and literacy.

13. Publisher of monetary data and other data: RBI maintains and provides all essential banking and other economic data, formulating and critically evaluating the economic policies in India. RBI collects, collates and publishes data regularly.

14. Exchange manager and controller: RBI represents India as a member of the International Monetary Fund [IMF]. Most of the commercial banks are authorized dealers of RBI.

15. Banking Ombudsman Scheme: RBI introduced the Banking Ombudsman Scheme in 1995. Under this scheme, the complainants can file their complaints in any form, including online and can also appeal to the Ombudsman against the awards and the other decisions of the Banks.

16. Banking Codes and Standards Board of India: To measure the performance of banks against Codes and standards based on established global practices, the RBI has set up the Banking Codes and Standards Board of India (BCSBI).

2. Credit Control Measures

Credit control is the primary mechanism available to the Central banks to realize the objectives of monetary management. The RBI is much better placed than many of credit control. The statutory basis for the control of the credit system by the Reserve Bank is embodied in the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 and the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.

3. Methods of Credit Control

I. Quantitative or General Methods:

1. Bank Rate Policy:

The bank rate is the rate at which the Central Bank of a country is prepared to re-discount the first class securities. It means the bank is prepared to advance loans on approved securities to its member banks. As the Central Bank is only the lender of the last resort the bank rate is normally higher than the market rate. For example: If the Central Bank wants to control credit, it will raise the bank rate. As a result, the deposit rate and other lending rates in the money-market will go up. Borrowing will be discouraged, and will lead to contraction of credit and vice versa.

2. Open Market Operations:

In narrow sense, the Central Bank starts the purchase and sale of Government securities in the money market.

In Broad Sense, the Central Bank purchases and sells not only Government securities but also other proper eligible securities like bills and securities of private concerns. When the banks and the private individuals purchase these securities they have to make payments for these securities to the Central Bank.

3. Variable Reserve Ratio:

a) Cash Reserves Ratio:

Under this system the Central Bank controls credit by changing the Cash Reserves Ratio. For example, if the Commercial Banks have excessive cash reserves on the basis of which they are creating too much of credit,this will be harmful for the larger interest of the economy. So it will raise the cash reserve ratio which the Commercial Banks are required to maintain with the Central Bank.

Similarly, when the Central Bank desires that the Commercial Banks should increase the volume of credit in order to bring about an economic revival in the economy. The central Bank will lower down the Cash Reserve Ratio with a view to expand the lending capacity of the Commercial Banks.

Variable Cash Reserve Ratio as an objective of monetary policy was first suggested by J.M. Keynes. It was first followed by Federal Reserve System in United States of America. The commercial banks as per the statute has to maintain reserves based on their demand deposit and fixed deposit with central bank is called as Cash Reserve Ratio.

If the CRR is high, the commercial bank’s capacity to create credit will be less and if the CRR is low, the commercial bank’s capacity to create credit will be high.

b) Statutory Liquidity Ratio:

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) is the amount which a bank has to maintain in the form of cash, gold or approved securities. The quantum is specified as some percentage of the total demand and time liabilities (i.e., the liabilities of the bank which are payable on demand anytime, and those liabilities which are accruing in one month’s time due to maturity) of a bank.

II. Qualitative or Selective Method of Credit Control:

The qualitative or the selective methods are directed towards the diversion of credit into particular uses or channels in the economy. Their objective is mainly to control and regulate the flow of credit into particular industries or businesses. The following are the frequent methods of credit control under selective method:

1.        Rationing of Credit

2.        Direct Action

3.        Moral Persuasion

4.        Method of Publicity

5.        Regulation of Consumer’s Credit

6.        Regulating the Marginal Requirements on Security Loans

1. Rationing of Credit

This is the oldest method of credit control. Rationing of credit as an instrument of credit control was first used by the Bank of England by the end of the 18th Century. It aims to control and regulate the purposes for which credit is granted by commercial banks. It is generally of two types.

a) The variable portfolio ceiling: It refers to the system by which the central bank fixes ceiling or maximum amount of loans and advances for every commercial bank.

b) The variable capital asset ratio: It refers to the system by which the central bank fixes the ratio which the capital of the commercial bank should have to the total assets of the bank.

2. Direct Action

Direct action against the erring banks can take the following forms.

a) The central bank may refuse to altogether grant discounting facilities to such banks.

b) The central bank may refuse to sanction further financial accommodation to a bank whose existing borrowing are found to be in excess of its capital and reserves.

c) The central bank may start charging penal rate of interest on money borrowed by a bank beyond the prescribed limit.

3. Moral Suasion

This method is frequently adopted by the Central Bank to exercise control over the Commercial Banks. Under this method Central Bank gives advice, then requests. and persuades the Commercial Banks to co-operate with the Central Bank in implementing its credit policies.

4. Publicity

Central Bank in order to make their policies successful, take the course of the medium of publicity. A policy can be effectively successful only when an effective public opinion is created in its favour.

5. Regulation of Consumer’s Credit:

The down payment is raised and the number of installments reduced for the credit sale.

6. Changes in the Marginal Requirements on Security Loans:

This system is mostly followed in U.S.A. Under this system, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System has been given the power to prescribe margin requirements for the purpose of preventing an excessive use of credit for stock exchange speculation.

This system is specially intended to help the Central Bank in controlling the volume of credit used for speculation in securities under the Securities Exchange Act, 1934.

The Repo Rate and the Reverse Repo Rate are the frequently used tools with which the RBI can control the availability and the supply of money in the economy. RR is always greater than RRR in India

Repo Rate: (RR)

The rate at which the RBI is willing to lend to commercial banks is called Repo Rate. Whenever banks have any shortage of funds they can borrow from the RBI, against securities. If the RBI increases the Repo Rate, it makes borrowing expensive for banks and vice versa. As a tool to control inflation, RBI increases the Repo Rate, making it more expensive for the banks to borrow from the RBI. Similarly, the RBI will do the exact opposite in a deflationary environment.

Reverse Repo Rate: (RRR)

The rate at which the RBI is willing to borrow from the commercial banks is called reverse repo rate. If the RBI increases the reverse repo rate, it means that the RBI is willing to offer lucrative interest rate to banks to park their money with the RBI. This results in a decrease in the amount of money available for banks customers as banks prefer to park their money with the RBI as it involves higher safety. This naturally leads to a higher rate of interest which the banks will demand from their customers for lending money to them.

4.  Reserve Bank of India and Rural Credit

In a developing economy like India, the Central bank of the country cannot confine itself to the monetary regulation only, and it is expected that it should take part in development function in all sectors especially in the agriculture and industry.

5.  Role of RBI in agricultural credit

RBI has been playing a very vital role in the provision of agricultural finance in the country. The Bank’s responsibility in this field had been increased due to the predominance of agriculture in the Indian economy and the inadequacy of the formal agencies to cater to the huge requirements of the sector. In order to fulfill this important role effectively, the RBI set up a separate Agriculture Credit Department. However, the volume of informal loans has not declined sufficiently.

6.  Functions of Agriculture Credit Department:

a) To maintain an expert staff to study all questions on agricultural credit;

b) To provide expert advice to Central and State Government, State Co-operative Banks and other banking activities.

c) To finance the rural sector through eligible institutions engaged in the business of agricultural credit and to co-ordinate their activities.

The duties of the RBI in agricultural credit were much restricted as it had to function only in an ex -officio capacity being the Central Bank of the country. It could not lend directly to the farmers, but the supply of rural credit was done through the mechanism of refinance with institutions specializing in rural credit. Primary societies may borrow from Central Co-operative Bank, and the latter may borrow from the apex or the State Co-operative Bank, which in its turn might get accommodation facilities from the RBI.

The RBI was providing medium-term loans also for a period exceeding 15 months to 5 years for reclamation of land, construction of irrigation works, purchase of machinery, etc.

The Reserve Bank of India was also providing long-term loans to fiancé permanent changes in land and also for the redemption of old debts.

With the establishment of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), all the functions of the RBIrelating to agricultural credit had been taken over and looked after by NABARD since 1982. Since then, all activities relating to rural credit are entirely looked after by NABARD.