NURSING
PROCESS: THE PATIENT UNDERGOING KIDNEY SURGERY
Immediate
care of the patient who has undergone surgery of the kidney includes assessment
of all body systems. Respiratory and circulatory status, pain level, fluid and
electrolyte status, and pa-tency and adequacy of urinary drainage systems are
assessed.
As
with any surgery, the use of anesthesia increases the risk of res-piratory
complications. Noting the location of the surgical inci-sion assists the nurse
in anticipating respiratory problems and pain. Respiratory status is assessed
by monitoring the rate, depth, and pattern of respirations. The location of the
incision fre-quently causes pain on inspiration and coughing; therefore, the
patient tends to splint the chest wall and take shallow respira-tions.
Auscultation is performed to assess normal and adventi-tious breath sounds.
The
vital signs and arterial or central venous pressure are moni-tored. Skin color
and temperature and urine output provide in-formation about circulatory status.
The surgical incision and drainage tubes are observed frequently to help detect
unexpected blood loss and hemorrhage.
Postoperative
pain is a major problem for the patient because of the location of the surgical
incision and the position the patient assumed on the operating table to permit
access to the kidney. The location and severity of pain are assessed before and
after analgesic medications are administered. Abdominal distention, which increases
discomfort, is also noted.
Urine
output and drainage from tubes inserted during surgery are monitored for
amount, color, and type or characteristics. De-creased or absent drainage is
promptly reported to the physician because it may indicate obstruction that
could cause pain, infec-tion, and disruption of the suture lines.
Based
on the history and assessment data and the type of surgical procedure
performed, some major nursing diagnoses for the pa-tient include the following
(additional diagnoses and interven-tions appear in the Plan of Nursing Care):
· Ineffective airway
clearance related to the location of the surgical incision
·
Ineffective breathing pattern related to surgical
incision and general anesthesia
· Acute pain related to
the location of the surgical incision, the position the patient assumed on the
operating table dur-ing surgery, and abdominal distention
· Urine retention related
to pain, immobility, and anesthesia
Based
on assessment data, potential complications that may de-velop include the
following:
· Bleeding
· Pneumonia
· Infection
· Fluid disturbances
(deficit or excess)
· Deep vein thrombosis
The
major goals for the patient include maintenance of effective airway clearance
and breathing pattern, relief of pain and dis-comfort, maintenance of urinary
elimination, and absence of complications.
The
surgical approaches to the kidney predispose the patient to respiratory
complications and paralytic ileus. If the pleural cavity has been entered
during surgery, a pneumothorax may occur, ne-cessitating insertion of a chest
tube. The incision is generally close to the diaphragm, and with a substernal
incision, the nerves may be stretched and bruised. These factors can lead to
pain and lim-ited chest movement during inspiration; breathing patterns are
altered or ineffective when the chest cannot fully expand. If the patient
cannot generate an effective cough, either because of pain at the incision site
and restricted movement or because of anes-thesia, ineffective airway clearance
may result.
Adequate use of analgesic medications is necessary to relieve pain so that the patient can take deep breaths and cough. When the analgesia is administered at regular, frequent intervals, the pa-tient can perform deep-breathing and coughing exercises more effectively. The incentive spirometer may be used to help maximize lung inflation. The patient is encouraged to cough after each deep breath to loosen secretions.
In
addition to pain at the incision site, the patient may experience pain and
discomfort from distention of the renal capsule (by tumor or blood clot),
ischemia (from occlusion of blood vessels), and stretching of the intrarenal
blood vessels. Muscle aches and pain stemming from the position the patient
assumed on the op-erating table, which places anatomic and physiologic stresses
on the body, are also common. Massage, moist heat, and analgesic medications
provide relief. Patient-controlled analgesia may be effective in controlling
pain and enabling the patient to ambu-late, cough, and breathe deeply.
The
nurse closely monitors urine output and drainage to identify complications and
to preserve and protect remaining kidney function (by preventing obstruction
and infection). The output from each urinary drainage tube is recorded
separately; accurate output measurements are essential in monitoring renal
function and ensuring the patency of the urinary drainage system.
Strict
asepsis is used when manipulating the drainage catheter and tube. Hand hygiene
is mandatory before and after touching any parts of the system. Use of closed
drainage systems is essen-tial to avoid contamination of the system and
infection. Urinary drainage is monitored closely for changes in volume, color,
odor, and components. Urinalysis and urine cultures are indicated to follow the
patient’s progress. Care is taken to ensure that the col-lection bag is
suspended below the bladder to prevent reflux of urine into the urinary tract.
The bag must be kept off the floor to prevent contamination.
Most urinary
drainage systems do not require routine irrigation. If irrigation is necessary
and prescribed, however, it should be performed carefully, with the use of
sterile solution; with minimal pressure, consistent with the physician’s
instructions; and with strict asepsis without interruption of the closed
drainage system.
Bleeding
is a major complication of kidney surgery. If undetected and untreated,
bleeding can result in hypovolemia and hemor-rhagic shock. The nurse’s role is
to observe for these complica-tions, to report their signs and symptoms, and to
administer prescribed parenteral fluids and blood and blood components if
complications occur. Monitoring of vital signs, skin condition, urinary drainage
system, surgical incision, and level of conscious-ness is necessary to detect
evidence of bleeding, decreased circu-lating blood, and fluid volume and
cardiac output. Frequent monitoring of vital signs (initially monitored at
least at hourly intervals) and urinary output is necessary for early detection
of these complications.
If
bleeding goes undetected or is late in being detected, the pa-tient may lose
significant amounts of blood and may experience hypoxemia. In addition to
hypovolemic shock due to hemorrhage, this type of blood loss may precipitate a
myocardial infarction or transient ischemic attack. Bleeding may be suspected
when the pa-tient experiences fatigue and when urine output is less than 30 mL
per hour. As bleeding persists, late signs of hypovolemia occur, such as cool
skin, flat neck veins, and change in level of con-sciousness or responsiveness.
Transfusions of blood components are indicated, along with surgical repair of
the bleeding vessel.
Pneumonia
may be prevented through use of an incentive spirometer, adequate pain control,
and early ambulation. Early signs of pneumonia include fever, increased heart
and respiratory rates, and adventitious breath sounds.
Preventing
infection is the rationale for using asepsis when changing dressings and
preparing catheters, other drainage tubes, central venous catheters, and
intravenous catheters for adminis-tration of fluids. Insertion sites are
monitored closely for signs and symptoms of inflammation: redness, drainage,
heat, and pain. Spe-cial care must be taken to prevent urinary tract infection,
which is associated with the use of indwelling urinary catheters. Catheters and
other invasive tubes are removed as soon they are no longer needed.
Antibiotic
agents are commonly administered postoperatively to prevent infection. If
antibiotic agents are prescribed, serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen
levels must be monitored closely because many antibiotic agents are toxic to
the kidney or can accumulate to toxic levels if renal function is decreased.
Preventing
fluid imbalance is critical when caring for a patient undergoing kidney
surgery, because both fluid loss and fluid excess are possible adverse effects
of the surgery. Fluid loss may occur during surgery as a result of excessive
urinary drainage when the obstruction is removed, or it may occur if diuretic
agents are used. Such loss may also occur with gastrointestinal losses, with
diar-rhea resulting from antibiotic use or with nasogastric drainage. When
postoperative intravenous therapy is inadequate to match the output or fluids
lost, a fluid deficit results. Fluid excess, or overload, may result from
cardiac effects of anesthesia, adminis-tration of excessive amounts of fluids,
or the patient’s inability to excrete fluid because of changes in renal
function. Decreased urine output may be an indication of fluid excess.
Astute assessment skills are needed to detect early signs of fluid excess (such as weight gain, pedal edema, urine output below 30 mL/h, and slightly elevated pulmonary wedge pressure, if available) before they become severe (appearance of adventitious breath sounds, shortness of breath).
Fluid
excess may be treated with fluid restriction and admin-istration of furosemide
(Lasix) or other diuretic agents. If renal insufficiency is present, these
medications may prove ineffective; therefore, dialysis may be necessary to
prevent heart failure and pulmonary edema.
Deep
vein thrombosis may occur postoperatively because of surgical manipulation of
the iliac vessels during surgery. Elastic compression stockings are applied,
and the patient is monitored closely for signs and symptoms of thrombosis and
encouraged to exercise the legs. Heparin may be administered postoperatively to
reduce the risk of thrombosis. Specific nursing interventions for the patient
undergoing kidney surgery are presented in the Plan of Nursing Care.
If the
patient has a drainage system in place, measures are taken to ensure that both
patient and family understand the importance of maintaining the system
correctly at home and preventing infec-tion. Verbal and written instructions
and guidelines are provided to the patient and family at the time of hospital
discharge. The pa-tient may be asked to demonstrate management of the drainage
system to ensure understanding. The importance of strategies to prevent
postoperative complications (urinary tract infection and obstruction, deep vein
thrombosis, atelectasis, and pneumonia) is stressed to the patient and family.
Those signs, symptoms, prob-lems, and questions that should be referred to the
physician or other primary health care provider are reviewed by the nurse with
the patient and family.
The
need for postoperative assessment and care after renal surgery continues
regardless of setting: the home, subacute care unit, out-patient clinic or
office, or rehabilitation setting. Referral for home care is indicated for the
patient going home with a urinary drainage system in place. During the home
visit, the home care nurse re-views the instructions and guidelines given to
the patient at hospi-tal discharge. The nurse assesses the patient’s ability to
carry out the instructions in the home and answers questions that the patient
or family has about management of the drainage system and the surgical
incision.
Additionally,
the home care nurse obtains vital signs and as-sesses the patient for signs and
symptoms of urinary tract infection and obstruction. The nurse also ensures
that pain is adequately controlled and that the patient is complying with
recommenda-tions. The home care nurse encourages adequate fluid intake and
increased levels of activity. Together the nurse, patient, and family review
the signs, symptoms, problems, and questions that should be referred to the
physician or other primary health care provider. If the patient has a drainage
tube in place, the nurse assesses the site and the patency of the system and
monitors the patient for com-plications, such as deep vein thrombosis,
bleeding, or pneumonia.
Because
it is easy for the patient, family, and health care team to focus on the
patient’s immediate disorder to the exclusion of other health issues, reminding
the patient and family about the importance of participating in health
promotion activities, in-cluding health screening, is key.
Expected
patient outcomes may include:
1) Achieves effective
airway clearance
a)
Exhibits clear and normal breath sounds, normal
respi-ratory rate, and unrestricted thoracic excursion
b)
Performs deep-breathing exercises, coughs every 2
hours, and uses the incentive spirometer as directed
c)
Demonstrates normal temperature and vital signs
2) Reports progressive
decrease in pain
a)
Requires analgesic medications at less frequent
intervals
b)
Turns, coughs, and takes deep breaths as suggested
c)
Ambulates progressively
3) Maintains urinary
elimination
a)
Demonstrates unobstructed urine flow from drainage
tubes
b)
Exhibits normal fluid and electrolyte balance
(normal skin turgor, serum electrolyte levels within normal range, absence of
symptoms of imbalances)
c)
Reports no increase in pain, tenderness, or
pressure at drainage site
d)
Exhibits cautious handling of drainage system
e)
Uses hand hygiene before and after handling
drainage system, and handles it only when necessary
f)
States rationale for use and maintenance of a
closed drainage system
4) Participates in
self-care activities
5) Experiences no
complications
a)
Demonstrates normal vital signs and arterial and
cen-tral venous pressures, normal skin turgor, temperature, and color
b)
Exhibits no signs or symptoms of bleeding, shock,
or hypovolemia (eg, decreased urine output, restlessness, rapid pulse)
c)
Exhibits no signs or symptoms of infection (eg,
fever or pain) or evidence of deep vein thrombosis (tenderness or redness of
calves)
d)
Maintains normal fluid balance, without rapid
weight gain or loss
e)
Has clear breath sounds and no shortness of breath
6) Excretes urine at a rate
of at least 30 mL per hour
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