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Chapter: Computer Graphics and Architecture

Animations & Realism

This unit give brief explanation about fractals, Peanocurves, and ray tracing

ANIMATIONS & REALISM

 

PREREQUISITE DISCUSSION:

 

This unit give brief explanation about fractals, Peanocurves, and ray tracing

 

 

1. ANIMATION

 

CONCEPT :

 

Computer animation refers to any time sequence of visual changes in a scene.

 

Computer animations can also be generated by changing camera parameters such as position, orientation and focal length.

 

Applications of computer-generated animation are entertainment, advertising, training and education.

 

Example : Advertising animations often transition one object shape into another. Frame-by-Frame animation Each frame of the scene is separately generated and stored. Later, the frames can be recoded on film or they can be consecutively displayed in "real-time playback" mode Design of Animation Sequences An animation sequence in designed with the following steps:

 

Story board layout

 

Object definitions

 

Key-frame specifications

 

Generation of in-between frames.

 

Story board

 

The story board is an outline of the action.

 

It defines the motion sequences as a set of basic events that are to take place.

 

Depending on the type of animation to be produced, the story board could consist of a set of rough sketches or a list of the basic ideas for the motion.

 

Object Definition

An object definition is given for each participant in the action.

Objects can be defined in terms of basic shapes such as polygons or splines.

 

The associated movements of each object are specified along with the shape.

 

SIGNIFICANCE:

Computer animation refers to any time sequence of visual changes in a scene.

 

 

2. KEY FRAME

 

CONCEPT

 

A key frame is detailed drawing of the scene at a certain time in the animation sequence.

 

Within each key frame, each object is positioned according to the time for that frame.

 

Some key frames are chosen at extreme positions in the action; others are spaced so that the time interval between key frames is not too much.

 

3. Computer Animation Languages

 

Animation functions include a graphics editor, a key frame generator and standard graphics routines.

 

The graphics editor allows designing and modifying object shapes, using spline surfaces, constructive solid geometry methods or other representation schemes.

 

Scene description includes the positioning of objects and light sources defining the photometric parameters and setting the camera parameters.

 

Action specification involves the layout of motion paths for the objects and camera.

 

Keyframe systems are specialized animation languages designed dimply to generate the in-betweens from the user specified keyframes.

 

Parameterized systems allow object motion characteristics to be specified as part of the object definitions. The adjustable parameters control such object characteristics as degrees of freedom motion limitations and allowable shape changes.

 

Scripting systems allow object specifications and animation sequences to be defined with a user input script. From the script, a library of various objects and motions can be constructed.

 

Keyframe Systems

 

Each set of in-betweens are generated from the specification of two keyframes.

 

For complex scenes, we can separate the frames into individual components or objects called cells, an acronym from cartoon animation.

 

4. MORPHING

Transformation of object shapes from one form to another is called Morphing.

 

Morphing methods can be applied to any motion or transition involving a change in shape. The example is shown in the below figure.

 

The general preprocessing rules for equalizing keyframes in terms of either the number of vertices to be added to a keyframe.

 

Suppose we equalize the edge count and parameters Lk and Lk+1 denote the number of line segments in two consecutive frames. We define,

 

Lmax = max (Lk, Lk+1) Lmin = min(Lk , Lk+1) Ne = Lmax mod Lmin Ns = int (Lmax/Lmin) The preprocessing is accomplished by

 

1.Dividing Ne edges of keyframemin into Ns+1 section.

 

2.Dividing the remaining lines of keyframemin into Ns sections.

 

For example, if Lk = 15 and Lk+1 = 11, we divide 4 lines of keyframek+1 into 2 sections each. The remaining lines of keyframek+1 are left infact.

 

If the vector counts in equalized parameters Vk and Vk+1 are used to denote the number of vertices in the two consecutive frames. In this case we define

 

Vmax = max(Vk,Vk+1), Vmin = min( Vk,Vk+1) and Nls = (Vmax -1) mod (Vmin – 1) Np = int ((Vmax

 

– 1)/(Vmin – 1 ))

 

Preprocessing using vertex count is performed by

 

1.Adding Np points to Nls line section of keyframemin.

 

2.Adding Np-1 points to the remaining edges of keyframemin.

 

Simulating Accelerations

 

Curve-fitting techniques are often used to specify the animation paths between key frames. Given the vertex positions at the key frames, we can fit the positions with linear or nonlinear paths. Figure illustrates a nonlinear fit of key-frame positions. This determines the trajectories for the in-betweens. To simulate accelerations, we can adjust the time spacing for the in-betweens.

 

Goal Directed Systems

 

We can specify the motions that are to take place in general terms that abstractly describe the actions.

 

These systems are called goal directed. Because they determine specific motion parameters given the goals of the animation.

 

Eg., To specify an object to „walk or to „run to a particular distance.

 

Kinematics and Dynamics

With a kinematics description, we specify the animation by motion parameters (position, velocity and acceleration) without reference to the forces that cause the motion.

 

For constant velocity (zero acceleration) we designate the motions of rigid bodies in a scene by giving an initial position and velocity vector for each object.

 

We can specify accelerations (rate of change of velocity ), speed up, slow downs and curved motion paths.

 

An alternative approach is to use inverse kinematics; where the initial and final positions of the object are specified at specified times and the motion parameters are computed by the system.

 

SIGNIFICANCE:

 

Transformation of object shapes from one form to another

 

 

5. GRAPHICS PROGRAMMING USING OPENGL

 

CONCEPT:

 

OpenGL is a software interface that allows you to access the graphics hardware without taking care of the hardware details or which graphics adapter is in the system.

 

OpenGL is a low-level graphics library specification. It makes available to the programmer a small set of geomteric primitives - points, lines, polygons, images, and bitmaps.

 

OpenGL provides a set of commands that allow the specification of geometric objects in two or three dimensions, using the provided primitives, together with commands that control how these objects are rendered (drawn).

Libraries

 

OpenGL Utility Library (GLU) contains several routines that use lower-level OpenGL commands to perform such tasks as setting up matrices for specific viewing orientations and projections and rendering surfaces.

 

OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) is a window-system-independent toolkit, written by Mark Kilgard, to hide the complexities of differing window APIs.

 

 

6. BASIC GRAPHICS PRIMITIVES

 

CONCEPTS:

 

OpenGL Provides tools for drawing all the output primitives such as points, lines, triangles, polygons, quads etc and it is defined by one or more vertices.

 

To draw such objects in OpenGL we pass it a list of vertices. The list occurs between the two OpenGL function calls glBegin() and glEnd(). The argument of glBegin() determine which object is drawn.

 

These functions are glBegin(int mode); glEnd( void ); The parameter mode of the function glBegin can be one of the following:

GL_POINTS GL_LINES

 

GL_LINE_STRIP GL_LINE_LOOP

 

GL_TRIANGLES

 

GL_TRIANGLE_STRIP

 

GL_TRIANGLE_FAN GL_QUADS

 

glFlush() :

 

ensures that the drawing commands are actually executed rather than stored in a buffer awaiting (ie) Force all issued OpenGL commands to be executed

 

glMatrixMode(GL_PROJECTION) : For orthographic projection

 

glLoadIdentity() : To load identity matrix

 

SIGNIFICANCE:

 

Different types of graphics OPENGL  functions are used to implement line,polygon.

 

7. FRACTALS AND SELF-SIMILARITY

 

CONCEPTS:

Many of the curves and pictures have a particularly important property called self-similar. This means that they appear the same at every scale: No matter how much one enlarges a picture of the curve, it has the same level of detail. Some curves are exactly self-similar, whereby if a region is enlarged the

 

enlargement looks exactly like the original. Other curves are statistically self-similar, such that the wiggles and irregularities in the curve are the same “on the average”, no matter how many times the

picture is enlarged. Example: Coastline.

 

Successive Refinement of Curves

 

A complex curve can be fashioned recursively by repeatedly “refining” a simple curve. The simplest example is the Koch curve, discovered in1904 by the Swedish mathematician Helge von Koch. The curve

produces an infinitely long line within a region of finite area. Successive generations of the Koch curve are denoted K0, K1, K2….The zeroth generation shape K0 is a horizontal line of length unity

 

To create K1 , divide the line K0 into three equal parts and replace the middle section with a triangular bump having sides of length 1/3. The total length of the line is 4/3. The second order curve K2, is formed by building a bump on each of the four line segments of K1. To form Kn+1 from Kn: Subdivide each segment of Kn into three equal parts and replace the middle part with a bump in the shape of an equilateral triangle.

 

In this process each segment is increased in length by a factor of 4/3, so the total length of the curve is 4/3 larger than that of the previous generation. Thus Ki has total length of (4/3)i , which increases as i increases. As i tends to infinity, the length of the curve becomes infinite..


SIGNIFICANCE:

 

It gives the clear view of particular  picture.

 

8. KOCH CURVES

 

CONCEPTS:

 

UNDERLYING THEORY OF THE COPYING PROCESS :

 

Each lens in the copier builds an image by transforming every point in the input image and drawing it on the output image. A black and white image I can be described simply as the set of its black points: I = set of all black points = { (x,y) such that (x,y) is colored black } I is the input image to the copier. Then the ith lens characterized by transformation Ti, builds a new set of points we denote as Ti(I) and adds them to

 

the image being produced at the current iteration. Each added set Ti(I) is the set of all transformed points I: Ti(I) = { (x’,y’) such that (x’,y’) = Ti(P) for some point P in I } Upon superposing the three

 

transformed images, we obtain the output image as the union of the outputs from the three lenses: Output image = T1(I) U T2(I) U T3(I) The overall mapping from input image to output image as W(.). It maps one set of points – one image – into another and is given by: W(.)=T1(.) U T2(.) U T3(.) For instance the copy of the first image I0 is the set W(I0).

 

 

1.The attractor set A is a fixed point of the mapping W(.), which we write as W(A)=A. That is putting A through the copier again produces exactly the same image A.

 

The iterates have already converged to the set A, so iterating once more makes no difference.

 

2.Starting with any input image B and iterating the copying process enough times, we find that the orbit of images always converges to the same A.

 

If Ik = W (k)(B) is the kth iterate of image B, then as k goes to infinity Ik becomes indistinguishable from the attractor A.

 

 

 

9. CREATING IMAGE BY ITERATED FUNCTIONS

 

CONCEPTS:

Another way to approach infinity is to apply a transformation to a picture again and again and examine the results. This technique also provides an another method to create fractal shapes.

 

An Experimental Copier

 

We take an initial image I0 and put it through a special photocopier that produces a new image I1. I1 is not a copy of I0 rather it is a superposition of several reduced versions of I0. We then take I1 and feed it

 

back into the copier again, to produce image I2. This process is repeated , obtaining a sequence of images

 

I0, I1, I2,… called the orbit of I0. Making new copies from old

 

Underlying Theory of the Copying Process

 

Each lens in the copier builds an image by transforming every point in the input image and drawing it on the output image. A black and white image I can be described simply as the set of its black points: I = set of all black points = { (x,y) such that (x,y) is colored black } I is the input image to the copier. Then the ith lens characterized by transformation Ti, builds a new set of points we denote as Ti(I) and adds them to the image being produced at the current iteration. Each added set Ti(I) is the set of all

transformed points

I: Ti(I) = { (x’,y’) such that (x’,y’) = Ti(P) for some point P in I } Upon superposing the three transformed images, we obtain the output image as the union of the outputs from the three lenses:

Output image = T1(I) U T2(I) U T3(I) The overall mapping from input image to output image as W(.). It maps one set of points – one image – into another and is given by: W(.)=T1(.) U T2(.) U T3(.) For instance the copy of the first image I0 is the set W(I0). Each affine map reduces the size of its image at least slightly, the orbit converge to a unique image called the attractor of the IFS. We denote the attractor by the set A, some of its important properties are:

 

1. The attractor set A is a fixed point of the mapping W(.), which we write as W(A)=A. That is putting A through the copier again produces exactly the same image A.

 

The iterates have already converged to the set A, so iterating once more makes no difference.

 

2. Starting with any input image B and iterating the copying process enough times, we find that the orbit of images always converges to the same A.

 

If Ik = W (k)(B) is the kth iterate of image B, then as k goes to infinity Ik becomes indistinguishable from the attractor A.

 

Drawing the kth Iterate

 

We use graphics to display each of the iterates along the orbit. The initial image I0 can be set, but two choices are particularly suited to the tools developed:

 

I0 is a polyline. Then successive iterates are collections of polylines. I0 is a single point. Then successive iterates are collections of points.

 

Using a polyline for I0 has the advantage that you can see how each polyline is reduced in size in each successive iterate. But more memory and time are required to draw each polyline and finally each polyline is so reduced as to be indistinguishable from a point. Using a single point for I0 causes each iterate to be a set of points, so it is straight forward to store these in a list. Then if IFS consists of N affine maps, the first iterate I1 consists of N points, image I2 consists of N2 points, I3 consists of N3 points, etc.

 

Copier Operation pseudocode(recursive version)

SIGNIFICANCE:

 

This technique also provides an another method to create fractal shapes.

 

10. THE MANDELBROT SET

 

CONCEPTS:

 

 

Graphics provides a powerful tool for studying a fascinating collection of sets that are the most complicated objects in mathematics. Julia and Mandelbrot sets arise from a branch of analysis known as iteration theory, which asks what happens when one iterates a function endlessly. Mandelbrot used computer graphics to perform experiments.

 

A view of the Mandelbrot set is shown in the below figure. It is the black inner portion, which appears to consist of a cardoid along with a number of wartlike circles glued to it.

 

The IFS uses the simple function f(z) = z2 + c -------------------------------(1) where c is some constant. The system produces each output by squaring its input and adding c. We assume that the process begins with the starting value s, so the system generates the sequence of values or orbit d1= (s)2 + c d2=

((s)2 + c)2 + c d3= (((s)2 + c)2 + c)2 + c d4= ((((s)2 + c)2 + c)2 + c)2 + c  ------------------------------(2)

The orbit depends on two ingredients       

the starting point s        

the given value of c       

Given two values of s and c how do points dk along the orbit behaves as k gets larger and larger? Specifically, does the orbit remain finite or explode. Orbits that remain finite lie in their corresponding Julia or Mandelbrot set, whereas those that explode lie outside the set.

 

When s and c are chosen to be complex numbers , complex arithmetic is used each time the function is applied. The Mandelbrot and Julia sets live in the complex plane – plane of complex numbers.

The IFS works well with both complex and real numbers.

 

Both s and c are complex numbers and at each iteration we square the previous result and add c. Squaring a complex number z = x + yi yields the new complex number: ( x + yi)2 = (x2 – y2) + (2xy)i ---------------

 

-------------------(3) having real part equal to x2 – y2 and imaginary part equal to 2xy.

 

Some Notes on the Fixed Points of the System It is useful to examine the fixed points of the system f(.) =(.)2 + c . The behavior of the orbits depends on these fixed points that is those complex numbers z that map into themselves, so that z2 + c = z. This gives us the quadratic equation z2 – z + c = 0 and the fixed points of the system are the two solutions of this equation, given by p+, p- = --------------------------------

 

(4) If an orbit reaches a fixed point, p its gets trapped there forever. The fixed point can be characterized as attracting or repelling. I

 

f an orbit flies close to a fixed point p, the next point along the orbit will be forced c 41 21 closer to p if p is an attracting fixed point

 

farther away from p if p is a repelling a fixed point.

 

If an orbit gets close to an attracting fixed point, it is sucked into the point. In contrast, a repelling fixed point keeps the orbit away from it.

 

Defining the Mandelbrot Set

The Mandelbrot set considers different values of c, always using the starting point s =0. For each

value of c, the set reports on the nature of the orbit of 0, whose first few values are as follows: orbit of 0:

 

0, c, c2+c, (c2+c)2+c, ((c2+c)2+c)2 +c,…….. For each complex number c, either the orbit is finite so that how far along the orbit one goes, the values remain finite or the orbit explodes that is the values get larger without limit. The Mandelbrot set denoted by M, contains just those values of c that result in finite orbits: The point c is in M if 0 has a finite orbit.

 

The point c is not in M if the orbit of 0 explodes.

 

11. JULIA SETS

 

CONCEPTS:

 

Like the Mandelbrot set, Julia sets are extremely complicated sets of points in the complex plane. There is a different Julia set, denoted Jc for each value of c. A closely related variation is the filled-in Julia set, denoted by Kc, which is easier to define.

 

The Filled-In Julia Set Kc

 

In the IFS we set c to some fixed chosen value and examine what happens for different starting point s. We ask how the orbit of starting point s behaves. Either it explodes or it doesnt. If it is finite , we say the starting point s is in Kc, otherwise s lies outside of Kc. Definition: The filled-in Julia set at c, Kc, is the set of all starting points whose orbits are finite. When studying Kc, one chooses a single value for c and considers different starting points. Kc should be always symmetrical about the origin, since the orbits of s and –s become identical after one iteration.

 

Texture Mapping

 

A method for adding surface detail is to map texture patterns onto the surfaces of objects. The texture pattern may either be defined in a rectangular array or as a procedure that modifies surface intensity values. This approach is referred to as texture mapping or pattern mapping.

 

The texture pattern is defined with a rectangular grid of intensity values in a texture space referenced with (s,t) coordinate values. Surface positions in the scene are referenced with UV object space coordinates and pixel positions on the projection plane are referenced in xy Cartesian coordinates.

 

Texture mapping can be accomplished in one of two ways. Either we can map the texture pattern to object surfaces, then to the projection plane, or we can map pixel areas onto object surfaces then to texture space. Mapping a texture pattern to pixel coordinates is sometime called texture scanning, while the mapping from pixel coordinates to texture space is referred to as pixel order scanning or inverse scanning or image order scanning.

 

often specified with parametric linear functions U=fu(s,t)=au s+ but + cu V=fv(s,t)=av s+ bvt + cv The object to image space mapping is accomplished with the concatenation of the viewing and projection transformations. A disadvantage of mapping from texture space to pixel space is that a selected texture patch usually does not match up with the pixel boundaries, thus requiring calculation of the fractional area of pixel coverage. Therefore, mapping from pixel space to texture space is the most commonly used texture mapping method. This avoids pixel subdivision calculations, and allows anti aliasing procedures

to be easily applied. The mapping from image space to texture space does require calculation of the inverse viewing projection transformation mVP -1 and the inverse texture map transformation mT -1

 

Procedural Texturing Methods

 

Next method for adding surface texture is to use procedural definitions of the color variations that are to be applied to the objects in a scene. This approach avoids the transformation calculations involved transferring two dimensional texture patterns to object surfaces. When values are assigned throughout a region of three dimensional space, the object color variations are referred to as solid textures. Values from texture space are transferred to object surfaces using procedural methods, since it is usually impossible to store texture values for all points throughout a region of space (e.g) Wood Grains or Marble patterns Bump Mapping. Although texture mapping can be used to add fine surface detail, it is not a good method for modeling the surface roughness that appears on objects such as oranges, strawberries and raisins. The illumination detail in the texture pattern usually does not correspond to the illumination direction in the scene.

 

A better method for creating surfaces bumpiness is to apply a perturbation function to the surface normal and then use the perturbed normal in the illumination model calculations. This technique is called bump mapping. If P(u,v) represents a position on a parameter surface, we can obtain the surface normal at that point with the calculation N = Pu × Pv Where Pu and Pv are the partial derivatives of P with

 

respect to parameters u and v. To obtain a perturbed normal, we modify the surface position vector by adding a small perturbation function called a bump function. P’(u,v) = P(u,v) + b(u,v) n. This adds

bumps to the surface in the direction of the unit surface normal n=N/|N|. The perturbed surface normal is

 

then obtained as N'=Pu' + Pv' We calculate the partial derivative with respect to u of the perturbed position vector as Pu' = _∂_(P + bn) ∂u = Pu + bu n + bnu Assuming the bump function b is small, we can neglect the last term and write p u' ≈ pu + bun Similarly p v'= p v + b v n. and the perturbed surface

 

normal is N' = Pu + Pv + b v (Pu x n ) + bu ( n x Pv ) + bu bv (n x n). But n x n =0, so that N' = N + bv ( Pu x n) + bu ( n x Pv) The final step is to normalize N' for use in the illumination model calculations.

 

SIGNIFICANCE:

 

A better method for creating surfaces bumpiness is to apply a perturbation function to the surface normal and then use the perturbed normal in the illumination model calculations

 

12. REFLECTIONS AND TRANSPERENCY

 

CONCEPTS:

 

The great strengths of the ray tracing method is the ease with which it can handle both reflection and refraction of light. This allows one to build scenes of exquisite realism, containing mirrors, fishbowls, lenses and the like.

 

There can be multiple reflections in which light bounces off several shiny surfaces before reaching the eye or elaborate combinations of refraction and reflection. Each of these processes requires the spawnins and tracing of additional rays. shows a ray emanating, from the eye in the direction dir and hitting a surface at the point Ph. when the surface is mirror like or transparent, the light I that reaches the eye may have 5 components I=Iamb + Idiff + Ispec + Irefl + Itran The first three are the fan=miler ambient, diffuse and specular contributions.

The diffuse and specular part arise from light sources in the environment that are visible at Pn. Iraft is the reflected light component ,arising from the light , Ik that is incident at Pn along the direction – r. This direction is such that the angles of incidence and reflection are equal,so R=dir-2(dir.m)m Where we assume that the normal vector m at Ph has been normalized.

 

Similarly Itran is the transmitted light components arising from the light IT that is transmitted thorough the transparent material to Ph along the direction –t. A portion of this light passes through the surface and in so doing is bent, continuing its travel along –dir. The refraction direction + depends on several factors.

 

I is a sum of various light contributions, IR and IT each arise from their own fine components – ambient, diffuse and so on. IR is the light that would be seen by an eye at Ph along a ray from P to Pn. To determine IR, we do in fact spawn a secondary ray from Pn in the direction r, find the first object it hits and then repeat the same computation of light component. Similarly IT is found by casting a ray in the direction t and seeing what surface is hit first, then computing the light contributions.

 

The Refraction of Light

 

When a ray of light strikes a transparent object, apportion of the ray penetrates the object. The ray

 

will change direction from dir to + if the speed of light is different in medium 1 than in medium 2. If the angle of incidence of the ray is θ1, Snell s law states that the angle of refraction will be

sin(θ2) = sin(θ1) C2 C1 where C1 is the spped of light in medium 1 and C2 is the speed of light in

 

medium 2. Only the ratio C2/C1 is important. It is often called the index of refraction of medium 2 with respect to medium 1. Note that if θ1 ,equals zero so does θ2 .

 

Light hitting an interface at right angles is not bent. In ray traving scenes that include transparent objects, we must keep track of the medium through which a ray is passing so that we can determine the value C2/C1 at the next intersection where the ray either exists from the current object or enters another one.

 

This tracking is most easily accomplished by adding a field to the ray that holds a pointer to the object within which the ray is travelling. Several design polices are used,

1)Design Policy 1: No two transparent object may interpenetrate.

 

2)Design Policy 2: Transparent object may interpenetrate.

 

13. COMPOUND OBJECTS: BOOLEAN OPERATIONS ON OBJECTS

 

CONCEPTS:

 

A ray tracing method to combine simple shapes to more complex ones is known as constructive Solid Geometry(CSG). Arbitrarily complex shapes are defined by set operations on simpler shapes in a CSG. Objects such as lenses and hollow fish bowls, as well as objects with holes are easily formed by combining the generic shapes. Such objects are called compound, Boolean or CSG objects. The Boolean operators: union, intersection and difference are shown in the figure 5.17. Two compound objects build from spheres. The intersection of two spheres is shown as a lens shape.

 

That is a point in the lens if and only if it is in both spheres. L is the intersection of the S1 and S2 is written as L=S1∩S2

sets A and B, denoted A-B,if it is in A and not in B.Applying the difference operation is analogous to removing material to cutting or carrying.The bowl is specified by B=(S1-S2)-C. The solid globe, S1 is hollowed out by removing all the points of the inner sphere, S2,forming a hollow spherical shell.

 

The top is then opened by removing all points in the cone C. A point is in the union of two sets A and B, denoted AUB, if it is in A or in B or in both. Forming the union of two objects is analogous to gluing them together.

 

The union of two cones and two cylinders is shown as a rocket. R=C1 U C2 U C3 U C4. Cone C1 resets on cylinder C2.Cone C3 is partially embedded in C2 and resets on the fatter cylinder C4. 5.10.1 Ray Tracing CSC objects Ray trace objects that are Boolean combinations of simpler objects.

 

The ray inside lens L from t3 to t2 and the hit time is t3.If the lens is opaque, the familiar shading rules will be applied to find what color the lens is at the hit spot. If the lens is mirror like or transparent spawned rays are generated with the proper directions and are traced as shown in figure 5.18. Ray,first strikes the bowl at t1,the smallest of the times for which it is in S1 but not in either S2 or C. Ray 2 on the other hand,first hits the bowl at t5.

 

Again this is the smallest time for which the ray is in S1,but in neither the other sphere nor the cone.The hits at earlier times are hits with components parts of the bowl,but not with the bowl itself. 5.10.2 Data Structure for Boolean objects Since a compound object is always the combination of two other objects say obj1 OP Obj2, or binary tree structure provides a natural description. 5.10.3 Intersecting Rays with Boolean Objects We need to be develop a hit() method to work each type of Boolean object.The method must form inside set for the ray with the left subtree,the inside set for the ray with the right subtree,and then combine the two sets appropriately. bool Intersection Bool::hit(ray in Intersection & inter)

{   Intersection    lftinter,rtinter;    if    (ray    misses    the    extends)return    false;    if    (C)    left

−>hit(r,lftinter)||((right−>hit(r,rtinter))) return false; return (inter.numHits > 0); }

 

Extent tests are first made to see if there is an early out.

 

Then the proper hit() routing is called for the left subtree and unless the ray misses this subtree,the hit list rinter is formed.If there is a miss,hit() returns the value false immediately because the ray must hit dot subtrees in order to hit their intersection.Then the hit list rtInter is formed. The code is similar for the union Bool and DifferenceBool classes. For UnionBool::hit(),the two hits are formed using if((!left-

 

)hit(r,lftInter))**(|right-)hit(r,rtinter))) return false; which provides an early out only if both hit lists are empty. For differenceBool::hit(),we use the code if((!left−>hit(r,lftInter)) return false; if(!right−>hit(r,rtInter)) { inter=lftInter; return true; } which gives an early out if the ray misses the left

subtree,since it must then miss the whole object.

 

Building and using Extents for CSG object

 

 

The creation of projection,sphere and box extend for CSG object. During a preprocessing step,the true for the CSG object is scanned and extents are built for each node and stored within the node itself. During raytracing,the ray can be tested against each extent encounted,with the potential benefit of an early out in the intersection process if it becomes clear that the ray cannot hit the object.

 

SIGNIFICANCE:

Ray tracing method to combine simple shapes to more complex ones is known as constructive Solid Geometry(CSG)

 

APPLICATIONS:

 

1.Implementing texture to a faces.

2.Implement a ray tracing method


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