Linear scattering losses

Linear scattering losses

Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical power contained within one propagating mode to be transferred linearly (proportionally to the mode power) into a different mode. This process tends to result in attenuation of the transmitted light as the transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which does not continue to propagate within the fiber core, but is radiated from the fiber. It must be noted that as with all linear processes, there is no change of frequency on scattering.

Linear scattering may be categorized into two major types: Rayleigh and Mie scattering. Both result from the nonideal physical properties of the manufactured fiber which are difficult and, in certain cases, impossible to eradicate at present.

1. Rayleigh scattering

Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the low-absorption window between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tails. It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the wavelength of the light.

These inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations and arise from density and compositional variations which are frozen into the glass lattice on cooling. The compositional variations may be reduced by improved fabrication, but the index fluctuations caused by the freezing-in of density inhomogeneities are fundamental and cannot be avoided.

The subsequent scattering due to the density fluctuations, which is in almost all directions, produces an attenuation proportional to 1/λ4 following the Rayleigh scattering formula. For a single-component glass this is given by:

where γR is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical wavelength, n is the refractive index of the medium, p is the average photoelastic coefficient, βc is the isothermal compressibility at a fictive temperature TF, and K is Boltzmann’s constant. The fictive temperature is defined as the temperature at which the glass can reach a state of thermal equilibrium and is closely related to the anneal temperature. Furthermore, the Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the transmission loss factor (transmissivity) of the fiber following the relation:

whereL is the length of the fiber. It is apparent from Eq. (2.4) that the fundamental component of Rayleigh scattering is strongly reduced by operating at the longest possible wavelength.

2. Mie scattering

Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are comparable in size with the guided wavelength. These result from the nonperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide and may be caused by fiber imperfections such as irregularities in the core–cladding interface, core–cladding refractive index differences along the fiber length, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles. When the scattering inhomogeneity size is greater than λ/10, the scattered intensity which has an angular dependence can be very large.

The scattering created by such inhomogeneities is mainly in the forward direction and is called Mie scattering. Depending upon the fiber material, design and manufacture, Mie scattering can cause significant losses. The inhomogeneities may be reduced by:

ü   removing imperfections due to the glass manufacturing process;

ü   carefully controlled extrusion and coating of the fiber;

ü   increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index difference.

By these means it is possible to reduce Mie scattering to insignificant levels