Enzymes - Biomolecules

Enzymes

Enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse the many thousands of metabolic reactions taking place within cells and organism. The molecules involved in such reactions are metabolites. Metabolism consists of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions, such as respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis and other pathways. These reactions are classified as

•            anabolic (building up of organic molecules). Synthesis of proteins from amino acids and synthesis of polysaccharides from simple sugars are examples of anabolic reactions.

•            catabolic (breaking down of larger molecules). Digestion of complex foods and the breaking down of sugar in respiration are examples of catabolic reactions (Figure 8.28).

Enzymes can be extracellular enzyme as secreted and work externally exported from cells. Eg. digestive enzymes; or intracellular enzymes that remain within cells and work there. These are found inside organelles or within cells. Eg. insulin

1. Properties of Enzyme

•            All are globular proteins.

•            They act as catalysts and effective even in small quantity.

•            They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.

•            They are highly specific.

•            They have an active site where the reaction takes place.

•            Enzymes lower activation energy of the reaction they catalyse.

As molecules react they become unstable, high energy intermediates, but they are in this transition state only momentarily. Energy is required to raise molecules to this transition state and this minimum energy needed is called the activation energy. This could be explained schematically by ‘boulder on hillside’ model of activation energy (Figure 8.29).

2. Lock and Key Mechanism of Enzyme

In a enzyme catalysed reaction, the starting substance is the substrate. It is converted to the product. The substrate binds to the specially formed pocket in the enzyme – the active site, this is called lock and key mechanism of enzyme action. As the enzyme and substrate form a ES complex, the substrate is raised in energy to a transition state and then breaks down into products plus unchanged enzyme (Figure 8.30).

3. Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Reactions

Enzymes are sensitive to environmental condition. It could be affected by temperature, pH, substrate concentration and enzyme concentration.

The rate of enzyme reaction is measured by the amount of substrate changed or amount of product formed, during a period of time.

4. Temperature

Heating increases molecular motion. Thus the molecules of the substrate and enzyme move more quickly resulting in a greater probability of occurence of the reaction. The temperature that promotes maximum activity is referred to as optimum temperature (Figure 8.31a).

5. pH

The optimum pH is that at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs. Thus the pH change leads to an alteration of enzyme shape, including the active site. If extremes of pH are encountered by an enzyme, then it will be denatured (Figure 8.31b).

6. Substrate Concentration

For a given enzyme concentration, the rate of an enzyme reaction increases with increasing substrate concentration (Figure 8.32).

7. Enzyme Concentration

The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the enzyme concentration.

8. Introducing the Michaelis-Menton Constant (Km) and Its Significance

When the initial rate of reaction of an enzyme is measured over a range of substrate concentrations (with a fixed amount of enzyme) and the results plotted on a graph. With increasing substrate concentration, the velocity increases – rapidly at lower substrate concentration.

However the rate increases progres-sively, above a certain concentration of the substrate the curve flattened out. No further increase in rate occurs.

This shows that the enzyme is working at maximum velocity at this point. On the graph, this point of maximum velocity is shown as V_max.

9. Inhibitors of Enzyme

Certain substances present in the cells may react with the enzyme and lower the rate of reaction. These substances are called inhibitors. It is of two types competitive and non-competitive (Figure 8.33).

10. Competitive Inhibitor

Molecules that resemble the shape of the substrate and may compete to occupy the active site of enzyme are known as competitive inhibitors. For Example: the enzyme that catalyses the reaction between carbon di oxide and the CO₂ acceptor molecule in photosynthesis, known as ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RUBISCO) is competitively inhibited by oxygen/carbon-di-oxide in the chloroplast. The competitive inhibitor is malonate for succinic dehydrogenase (Figure 8.34).

11. Non-competitive Inhibitors

There are certain inhibitors which may be unlike the substrate molecule but still combines with the enzyme. This either blocks the attachment of the substrate to active site or change the shape so that it is unable to accept the substrate. For example the effect of the amino acids alanine on the enzyme pyruvate kinase in the final step of glycolysis.

Certain non-reversible/irreversible inhibitors bind tightly and permanently to an enzyme and destroy its catalytic properties entirely. These could also be termed as poisons . Example – cyanide ions which blocks cytochrome oxidase in terminal oxidation in cell aerobic respiration, the nerve gas sarin blocks a neurotransmitter in synapse transmission.

12. Allosteric Enzymes

They modify enzyme activity by causing a reversible change in the structure of the enzyme active site. This in turn affects the ability of the substrate to bind to the enzyme. Such compounds are called allosteric inhibitors. Eg. The enzyme hexokinase which catalysis glucose to glucose-6 phosphate in glycolysis is inhibited by glucose 6 phosphate. This is an example for feedback allosteric inhibitor.

13. End Product Inhibition (Negative Feedback Inhibition)

When the end product of a metabolic pathway begins to accumulate, it may act as an allosteric inhibitor of the enzyme controlling the first step of the pathway. Thus the product starts to switch off its own production as it builds up. The process is self – regulatory. As the product is used up, its production is switched on once again. This is called end-product inhibition (Figure 8.35).

14. Enzyme Cofactors

Many enzymes require non-protein components called cofactors for their efficient activity. Cofactors may vary from simple inorganic ions to complex organic molecules. They are of three types: inorganic ions, prosthetic groups and coenzymes (Figure 8.36).

•          Holoenzyme – active enzyme with its non protein component.

•            Apoenzyme – the inactive enzyme without its non protein component.

•            Inorganic ions help to increase the rate of reaction catalysed by enzymes. Example: Salivary amylase activity is increased in the presence of chloride ions.

•            Prosthetic groups are organic molecules that assist in catalytic function of an enzyme. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) contains riboflavin (vit B2), the function of which is to accept hydrogen. ‘Haem’ is an iron-containing prosthetic group with an iron atom at its centre.

•            Coenzymes are organic compounds which act as cofactors but do not remain attached to the enzyme. The essential chemical components of many coenzymes are vitamins. Eg. NAD, NADP, Coenzyme A, ATP

15. Nomenclature of Enzymes

Most of the enzymes have a name based on their substrate with the ending –ase. For example lactase hydrolyses lactose and amylase hydrolyses amylose. Other enzymes like renin, trypsin do not depict any relation with their function.

16. Classification of Enzymes

Enzymes are classified into six groups based on their mode of action.

17. Uses of Enzymes