Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Aurangzeb, the last of the Great Mughals, started off his reign by imprisoning his old father. He assumed the title Alamgir (the Conqueror of the World). He reigned for 48 years. He was no lover of art like his grandfather Jahangir and architecture like his father Shah Jahan.

He tolerated no religion excepting Islam. He re-imposed the jizya tax on Hindus and excluded them from office as far as possible. Between 1658 and 1681, Aurangzeb remained in the North and suppressed the revolt of Bundelas, Jats, Satnamis and Sikhs. Aurangzeb’s expansion in the North-East resulted in a war with the Ahoms of Kamarupa (Assam). The kingdom came under repeated attacks of the Mughals, but it could not be subdued totally.

Relationship with Rajputs and Marathas

Aurangzeb’s hostility towards Rajputs led to prolonged wars with them. To make matters worse, his rebellious son, Prince Akbar, joined the forces of Rajputs and created troubles to him. Prince Akbar entered into a pact with Shivaji’s son Shambuji in the Deccan. So Aurangzeb had to march to the Deccan in 1689.

In the Deccan, Aurangzeb brought Bijapur and Golconda into submission. Shivaji had carved out a kingdom, proclaiming himself the Emperor of Maratha State (1674). Aurangzeb could not stop the rise of Shivaji in the south-west. But he vanquished Shivaji’s son and successor Shambuji, who was captured and executed by him. Aurangzeb remained in the Deccan until his death in 1707, at the age of nearly 90.

By the end of Aurangzeb’s rule, the British had firmly established their trade centres at Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai). The French had their main trade centre in Pondicherry (Puducherry).

The Mughal Administration Central Administration

The Mughals provided a stable administration in larger parts of India. The Emperor was the supreme head of the Mughal administrative system. He was the law maker, the chief executive, the commander-in-chief of the army and the final dispenser of justice. He was assisted by a council of ministers. The most important officials were the Wakil (Prime Minister) and Wazir ordiwan (in charge of the revenue and expenditure). Mir Bhakshi was in- charge of the army. The Mir Saman looked after the royal household. The Qazi was the Chief Judge. Sadr-us-Sudr was minister for enforcing Islamic law (Sharia).

Provincial Administration

The empire was divided into several Subhas (provinces). Each Subha was under the control of an officer called Subedar. The Subhas were further divided into districts called Sarkars. The Sarkars were subdivided into Parganas. A group of villages (Gramas) formed a Pargana.

Local Administration

The towns and cities were administered by Kotwals. Kotwals maintained law and order. The administration of villages was left in the hands of local village panchayats (informal institution of justice in villages). The Panchayatdars (jury) dispensed justice.

Army

The Mughal army comprised infantry, cavalry, war elephants and artillery. The Emperor maintained a large number of trained and well-armed bodyguards and palace guards.

Mansabdari System

Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system. According to this system, the nobles, civil and military officials were combined to form one single service. Everyone in the service was given a mansab, meaning a position or rank. A Mansabdar was a holder of such a rank. Mansabdar rank was dependent on Zat and Sawar. The former indicated one’s status. Sawar was the number of horses and horsemen he had to maintain. His salary was fixed on the basis of the number of soldiers each Mansabdar received ranging from 10 to 10,000. The Mansabdars were paid high salary by the Emperor. Before receiving the salary, a Mansabdar had to present his horsemen for inspection. Their horses were branded to prevent theft. The Emperor could use the troops maintained by a Mansabdar whenever he wished. The rank of Mansabdar was not hereditary during Akbar’s time. After him, it became hereditary.

Land Revenue Administration

Land revenue administration was toned up during the reign of Akbar. Raja Todar Mal, Revenue Minister of Akbar, adopted and refined the system introduced by Sher Shah. Todar Mal’s zabt system was put in place in the north and north-western provinces. According to this system, after a survey, lands were classified according to the nature and fertility of the soil. The share of the state was fixed at one-third of the average produce for 10 years. During the reign of Shah Jahan, the zabt or zabti system was extended to the Deccan provinces.

The Mughal emperors enforced the old iqta system, renaming it jagir. It is a land tenure system developed during the period of Delhi Sultanate. Under the system, the collection of the revenue of an area and the power of governing it were bestowed upon a military or civil official now named Jagirdar. Every Mansabdar was a Jagirdar if he was not paid in cash. The Jagirdar collected the revenue through his own officials. The Amal Guzar or the revenue collector of the district was assisted by subordinate officers like the Potdar, the Qanungo, the Patwari and the Muqaddams.

Those appointed to collect the revenue from the landholders were called zamindars. Zamindars collected taxes and maintained law and order with the help of Mughal officials and soldiers. The local chieftains and little kings were also called zamindars. But at the end of the sixteenth century, the zamindars were conferred hereditary rights over their zamin. The zamindar was empowered to maintain troops for the purpose of collecting revenue. The emperor granted lands to scholars, holy men and religious institutions. These lands called suyurghal were tax-free.

Religious Policy

The Mughal emperors were the followers of Islam. Akbar was very liberal in his religious policy. In Akbar’s court, the Portuguese missionaries were great favourites. Akbar tried to include the good principles in all religions and formulated them into one single faith called Din-I-Ilahi (divine faith). Jahangir and Shah Jahan also followed the policy of Akbar. Aurangzeb rejected the liberal views of his predecessors. As we pointed out earlier, he re-imposed the jizya and pilgrim tax on the Hindus. His intolerance towards other religions made him unpopular among the people.

Art and Architecture

Babur introduced the Persian style of architecture to India by building many structures at Agra, Biana, Dholpur, Gwalior and Kiul(Aligarh), but only a few of them exist today. Humayun’s palace in Delhi, Din-i-Panah, was probably destroyed by Sher Shah Sur who built the Purana Qila in its place. The most prominent monument of Sher Shah’s reign was his mausoleum built at Sasaram in Bihar.

The Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Panch Mahal (pyramidal structure in five stories), Rang Mahal, Salim Chishti’s Tomb and Buland Darwaza were built during Akbar’s time. Jahangir completed Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara and the beautiful building containing the tomb of Itmad-ud-daula, father of Nur Jahan, at Agra.

Shah Jahan’s time witnessed the climax of Mughal splendour. The famous peacock throne, covered with expensive jewels, was made for the Emperor to sit on. Then rose the world famous Taj Mahal, by the side of the Jumna river at Agra. Besides Taj, he built the Moti Masjid, the pearl mosque at Agra, the great Jama Masjid of Delhi and the Diwan-i-Khas and Diwan-i-Am in his palace in Delhi.

During Aurangzeb’s reign, architecture did not receive much patronage. The Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, a mausoleum built by his son Prince Azam Shah as a loving tribute to his mother in the late seventeenth century, is, however, worth mentioning.

Red Fort

Red Fort, also called Lal Qila, in Delhi was the residence of the Mughal emperors. Constructed in 1639 by Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace of his fortified capital Shajahanabad. The Red Fort is named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone.