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Chapter: Computer Networks

Data link layer

1. Internetworking 2. Ip 2.1 Ip service model 2.2 Packet format 2.3 Ip fragmentation and reassembly 3. Arp 4. Reverse address resolution protocol 5. Dynamic host configuration protocol (dhcp) 6. Internet control message protocol 7. Routing 8. Routing algorithms 8.1. Distance vector 8.2. Count-to-infinity problem 8.3. Link state routing 9. Addressing 9.1. Global addresses 9.2. Ip datagram forwarding 10. CIDR 11. Subnetting

DATA LINKLAYER

 

1. INTERNETWORKING

 

An arbitrary collection of networks interconnected to provide some sort of host-host to packet delivery service


 

2. IP

·         IP stands for Internet Protocol

 

·         Key tool used today to build scalable, heterogeneous internetworks

·         It runs on all the nodes in a collection of networks and defines the infrastructure that allows these nodes and networks to function as a single logical internetwork



            IP Service Model

 

·         Packet Delivery Model

 

o     Connectionless model for data delivery

 

o     Best-effort delivery (unreliable service)

 

§    packets are lost

 

§    packets are delivered out of order

 

§    duplicate copies of a packet are delivered

 

§    packets can be delayed for a long time

 

·         Global Addressing Scheme

 

o     Provides a way to identify all hosts in the network

 

Packet Format

o     Version (4): currently 4

 

o     Hlen (4): number of 32-bit words in header

 

o     TOS (8): type of service (not widely used)

 

o     Length (16): number of bytes in this datagram

 

o     Ident (16): used by fragmentation

 

o     Flags/Offset (16): used by fragmentation

 

o     TTL (8): number of hops this datagram has traveled

 

o     Protocol (8): demux key (TCP=6, UDP=17)

 

o     Checksum (16): of the header only

 

DestAddr & SrcAddr (3

 

IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

·         Each network has some MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)

 

o     Ethernet (1500 bytes), FDDI (4500 bytes)

 

·         Strategy

 

o     Fragmentation occurs in a router when it receives a datagram that it wants to forward over a network which has (MTU < datagram)

 

o     Reassembly is done at the receiving host

 

o     All the fragments carry the same identifier in the Ident field

 

o     Fragments are self-contained datagrams

 

o   IP does not recover from missing fragments

      

 


3. ARP

 

Address Translation Protocol (ARP)

·         Map IP addresses into physical addresses

 

o     destination host

 

o     next hop router

 

·         Techniques

 

o     encode physical address in host part of IP address

 

o     table-based

 

·         ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 

o     table of IP to physical address bindings

 

o     broadcast request if IP address not in table

 

o     target machine responds with its physical address table entries are discarded if not refreshed

 


o     HardwareType: type of physical network (e.g., Ethernet)

 

o     ProtocolType: type of higher layer protocol (e.g., IP)

 

o     HLEN & PLEN: length of physical and protocol addresses

 

o     Operation: request or response

 

o     Source/Target Physical/Protocol addresses

 

o     Ethernet addresses are configured into network by manufacturer and they are unique

 

o     IP addresses must be unique on a given internetwork but also must reflect the structure of the internetwork

 

o     Most host Operating Systems provide a way to manually configure the IP information for the host

o     Drawbacks of manual configuration

 

§    A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large network

 

§    Configuration process is error-prune

 

o     Automated Configuration Process is required

 

            4. REVERSE ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL

 

·        (RARP) is a Link layer networking protocol

·        RARP is described in internet EngineeringTask ForceETF) publication RFC 903

 

·        It has been rendered obsolete by the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) and the modern Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)

 

·        BOOTP configuration server assigns an IP address to each client from a pool of addresses.

 

·        BOOTP uses the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 

 

 

 

            5. DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCP)

 

n DHCP server is responsible for providing configuration information to hosts

 n There is at least one DHCP server for an administrative domain

n DHCP server maintains a pool of available addresses

n Newly booted or attached host sends DHCPDISCOVER message to a special IP address (255.255.255.255)

n DHCP relay agent unicasts the message to DHCP server and waits for the response

 



            6. INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL

 

o     Defines a collection of error messages that are sent back to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an IP datagram successfully

§    Destination host unreachable due to link /node failure

 

§    Reassembly process failed

 

§    TTL had reached 0 (so datagrams don't cycle forever)

 

§    IP header checksum failed

 

o     ICMP-Redirect

 

§    From router to a source host

 

§    With a better route information

 

o   Forwarding versus Routing

–   Forwarding:

 

– to select an output port based on destination address and routing table

 

–   Routing:

–   process by which routing table is built

 

7. ROUTING

 

Forwarding versus Routing

–   Forwarding:

 

– to select an output port based on destination address and routing table

 

–   Routing:

–   process by which routing table is built

 

–   Forwarding table VS Routing table

–   Forwarding table

 

– Used when a packet is being forwarded and so must contain enough information to accomplish the forwarding function

 

– A row in the forwarding table contains the mapping from a network number to an outgoing interface and some MAC information, such as Ethernet Address of the next hop

 

–   Routing table

 

– Built by the routing algorithm as a precursor to build the forwarding table

 

–   Generally contains mapping from network numbers to next hops

 

– For a simple network, we can calculate all shortest paths and load them into some nonvolatile storage on each node.

 

–   Such a static approach has several shortcomings

–   It does not deal with node or link failures

–   It does not consider the addition of new nodes or links

–   It implies that edge costs cannot change

–   Need a distributed and dynamic protocol

–   Two main classes of protocols

–   Distance Vector

–   Link State

 

            8. ROUTING ALGORITHMS

 

            Distance Vector

 

o     Each  node  constructs  a  one  dimensional  array (a  vector)  containing the  “distances”

 

o   (costs) to all other nodes and distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors

 

o     Starting assumption is that each node knows the cost of the link to each of its directly connected neighbors

o     The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes called as Bellman-Ford algorithm

 

o     Every T seconds each router sends its table to its neighbor each each router then updates its table based on the new information

 

o     Problems include fast response to good new and slow response to bad news. Also too many messages to update

§    When a node detects a link failure

 

·         F detects that link to G has failed

 

·         F sets distance to G to infinity and sends update to A

 

·         A sets distance to G to infinity since it uses F to reach G

 

·         A receives periodic update from C with 2-hop path to G

 

·         A sets distance to G to 3 and sends update to F

 

·         F decides it can reach G in 4 hops via A

 


 

·         Slightly different circumstances can prevent the network from stabilizing

 

§    Suppose the link from A to E goes down

 

§    In the next round of updates, A advertises a distance of infinity to E, but B and C advertise a distance of 2 to E

 

§    Depending on the exact timing of events, the following might happen

 

·         Node B, upon hearing that E can be reached in 2 hops from C, concludes that it can reach E in 3 hops and advertises this to A

 

·         Node A concludes that it can reach E in 4 hops and advertises this to C

 

·         Node C concludes that it can reach E in 5 hops; and so on.

 

·         This cycle stops only when the distances reach some number that is large enough to be considered infinite

 

            Count-to-infinity problem

 

·         Use some relatively small number as an approximation of infinity

 

·         For example, the maximum number of hops to get across a certain network is never going to be more than 16

 

·         One technique to improve the time to stabilize routing is called split horizon

 

o     When a node sends a routing update to its neighbors, it does not send those routes it learned from each neighbor back to that neighbor

 

o     For example, if B has the route (E, 2, A) in its table, then it knows it must have learned this route from A, and so whenever B sends a routing update to A, it does not include the route (E, 2) in that update

 

·         In a stronger version of split horizon, called split horizon with poison reverse

 

o     B actually sends that back route to A, but it puts negative information in the route to ensure that A will not eventually use B to get to E

 

o     For example, B sends the route (E, ∞) to A

 

            Link State Routing

 

Strategy: Send to all nodes (not just neighbors) information about directly connected links (not entire routing table).

·         Link State Packet (LSP)

 

o     id of the node that created the LSP

 

o     cost of link to each directly connected neighbor

 

o     sequence number (SEQNO)

o     time-to-live (TTL) for this packet

 

·         Reliable Flooding

 

o     store most recent LSP from each node

 

o     forward LSP to all nodes but one that sent it

 

o     generate new LSP periodically; increment SEQNO

 

o     start SEQNO at 0 when reboot

 

o     decrement TTL of each stored LSP; discard when TTL=0

 

            9. ADDRESSING

 

            Global Addresses

o     Properties

 

§    globally unique

 

§    hierarchical: network + host

 

§    4 Billion IP address, half are A type, ¼ is B type, and 1/8 is C type

 

o     Format

 

o     Dot notation

 

§    10.3.2.4

 

§    128.96.33.81

 

·        192.12.69.77

 

            IP Datagram Forwarding

 

·         Strategy

 

o     every datagram contains destination's address

 

o     if directly connected to destination network, then forward to host

 

o     if not directly connected to destination network, then forward to some router

 

o     forwarding table maps network number into next hop

 

o     each host has a default router

 

o     each router maintains a forwarding table

 

Example (router R2)

n   Algorithm

if (NetworkNum of destination = NetworkNum of one of my interfaces) then deliver packet to destination over that interface

 

else

 

if (NetworkNum of destination is in my forwarding table) then deliver packet to NextHop router

 

else

deliver packet to default router

 

For a host with only one interface and only a default router in its forwarding table, this simplifies to

 

if (NetworkNum of destination = my NetworkNum)then deliver packet to destination directly

 

else

deliver packet to default router

 

10. CIDR

Classless Addressing

Classless Inter-Domain Routing

 

A technique that addresses two scaling concerns in the Internet

 

The growth of backbone routing table as more and more network numbers need to be stored in them

 

Potential exhaustion of the 32-bit address space

 

Address assignment efficiency

 

Arises because of the IP address structure with class A, B, and C addresses

 

Forces us to hand out network address space in fixed-size chunks of three very different sizes

 

A network with two hosts needs a class C address

 

Address assignment efficiency = 2/255 = 0.78

 

A network with 256 hosts needs a class B address

 

ADDRESS ASSIGNMENT EFFICIENCY = 256/65535 = 0.39

 

Problem with this solution

 

Excessive storage requirement at the routers.

 

If a single AS has, say 16 class C network numbers assigned to it,

 

Every Internet backbone router needs 16 entries in its routing tables for that AS

 

This is true, even if the path to every one of these networks is the same

 

If we had assigned a class B address to the AS

 

The same routing information can be stored in one entry

 

Efficiency = 16 × 255 / 65, 536 = 6.2%

 

CIDR tries to balance the desire to minimize the number of routes that a router needs to know against the need to hand out addresses efficiently.

 

CIDR uses aggregate routes

 

Uses a single entry in the forwarding table to tell the router how to reach a lot of different networks

 

Breaks the rigid boundaries between address classes

 

Consider an AS with 16 class C network numbers.

 

Instead of handing out 16 addresses at random, hand out a block of contiguous class C addresses

 

Suppose we assign the class C network numbers from 192.4.16 through 192.4.31

 

Observe that top 20 bits of all the addresses in this range are the same (11000000 00000100 0001)

 

We have created a 20-bit network number (which is in between class B network number and class C number)

Requires to hand out blocks of class C addresses that share a common prefix

 



            11. SUBNETTING

 

     Add another level to address/routing hierarchy: subnet

 

     Subnet masks define variable partition of host part of class A and B addresses

 

     Subnets visible only within site Forwarding Algorithm

 

     D = destination IP address

 

     for each entry < SubnetNum, SubnetMask, NextHop>

 

     D1 = SubnetMask & D

 

     if D1 = SubnetNum

 

     if NextHop is an interface

 

        deliver datagram directly to destination

 

     else

 

        deliver datagram to NextHop (a router)

 

Subnet Addressing

 

Suppose that the first two bytes are the subnet indicator with addresses of the form 131.156.x.x

 

Then, 131.156.29.156 and 131.156.34.215 would be on the same subnet.

 

The subnet mask would be 255.255.0.0, which corresponds to 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000, where 1 indicates that the position is part of the subnet address and a 0 indicates that it is not.

 

Partial bytes can also be used as subnets.

 

For example, consider the subnet mask 255.255.255.128, which is 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000.

 

Here, all computers with the same first three bytes and last byte from 128 to 254 would be on the same subnet.



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