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Chapter: Computer Architecture : Arithmetic Operations

Arithmetic Operations: Addition and Subtraction

Digits are added bit by bit from right to left, with carries passed to the next digit to the left. Subtraction uses addition: The appropriate operand is simply negated before being added.overflow occurs when the result from an operation cannot be represented with the available hardware.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

 

Digits are added bit by bit from right to left, with carries passed to the next digit to the left. Subtraction uses addition: The appropriate operand is simply negated before being added.overflow occurs when the result from an operation cannot be represented with the available hardware. When adding operands with different signs, overflow cannot occur. The reason is the sum must be no larger than one of the operands. For example, 10 + 4 = 6. Since the operands fit in 32 bits and the sum is no larger than an operand, the sum must fit in 32 bits as well.

 

Therefore no overflow can occur when adding positive and negative operands. There are similar restrictions to the occurrence of overflow during subtract, but it’s just the opposite

principle: When the signs of the operands are the same, overflow cannot occur. Overflow occurs in subtraction when a negative number is subtracted from a positive number and get a negative result, or when a positive number is subtracted from a negative number and get a positive result. This means a borrow occurred from the sign bit. Unsigned integers are commonly used for memory addresses where overflows are ignored.

 

The computer designer must therefore provide a way to ignore overflow in some cases and to recognize it in others. The MIPS solution is to have two kinds of arithmetic instructions to recognize the two choices:

 

Add (add), add immediate (addi), and subtract (sub) cause exceptions on overflow.

  Add unsigned (addu), add immediate unsigned (addiu), and subtract unsigned (subu) do not

 

cause exceptions on overflow.

 

Because C ignores overflows, the MIPS C compilers will always generate the unsigned versions of the arithmetic instructions addu, addiu, and subu no matter what the type of the

 

variables. The MIPS Fortran compilers, however, pick the appropriate arithmetic instructions, depending on the type of the operands.


Fig. 2.1 Overflow conditions for addition and subtraction.

 

The computer designer must decide how to handle arithmetic overflows. Although some languages like C ignore integer overflow, languages like Ada and Fortran require that the program be notified. The programmer or the programming environment must then decide what to do when overflow occurs.

 

MIPS detects overflow with an exception, also called an interrupt on many computers. An exception or interrupt is essentially an unscheduled procedure call. The address of the instruction that overflowed is saved in a register, and the computer jumps to a predefined address to invoke the appropriate routine for that exception. The interrupted address is saved so that in some situations the program can continue after corrective code is executed. MIPS includes a register called the exception program counter (EPC) to contain the address of the instruction that caused the exception. The instruction move from system control (mfc0) is used to copy EPC into a general-purpose register so that MIPS software has the option of returning to the offending instruction via a jump register instruction.

 

Addition and Subtraction Example

 

adding 6 to 7 in binary and then subtracting 6 from 7 in binary: 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111two = 7

+                   0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0110two =

=                   0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101two = 13

 

Subtracting 6  from 7  can be done directly:

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111two = 7

–       0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0110two = 6

 

=                   0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001two = 1

 

or via addition using the two’s complement representation of –6: 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111two = 7

 

+       1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010two = 6

 

=                   0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001two = 1 


Instructions available

Add, subtract, add immediate, add unsigned, subtract unsigned.

 

Carry-Look Ahead Adder

• Binary addition would seem to be dramatically slower for large registers consider 0111 + 0011

carries propagate left-to-right

So 64-bit addition would be 8 times slower than 8- bit addition

 

   It is possible to build a circuit called a “carry look-ahead adder” that speeds up addition by eliminating the need to “ripple” carries through the word.

 

Carry look-ahead is expensive

If n is the number of bits in a ripple adder, the circuit complexity (number of gates) is O(n)

For full carry look-ahead, the complexity is O(n3 )

  Complexity can be reduced by rippling smaller look-aheads: e.g., each 16 bit group is handled

 

by four 4-bit adders and the 16-bit adders are rippled into a 64-bit adder


Fig. 2.2 Carry-look ahead adder

The advantage of the CLA scheme used in this circuit is its simplicity, because each CLA block calculates the generate and propagate signals for two bits only. This is much easier to understand than the more complex variants presented in other textbooks, where combinatorical logic is used to calculate the G and P signals of four or more bits, and the resulting adder structure is slightly faster but also less regular.


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